Mediating Differences in Children's Interaction with Digital Libraries Through
Modeling Their Tasks
Dania Bilal
School of Information Sciences, University of Tennessee, 1345 Circle Park, Knoxville,
TN 37919. Email: dania@utk.edu
Sonia Sarangthem
School of Information Sciences, University of Tennessee, 1345 Circle Park, Knoxville,
TN 37919, Knoxville, TN 37919. Email: sonia@utk.edu
Abstract
This paper presents four task-based models that were developed based on Arabicspeaking children’s information seeking behavior in using the International Children’s
Digital Library (ICDL). Three general models of user information seeking behavior in
digital environments were used as frameworks for generating the task-based models: Ellis
& Haugan (1997), Choo, Detlor, & Turnball (2000), and Marchionini (1995). The
models show that children’s information seeking was characterized by these seven modes
of behavior: Start, Recognize, Browse, Examine, Differentiate, Read, Explore, and
Finish. Each of the modes has a number of moves associated with it. Underlying the taskbased models is the information need and affective reactions that were driven by each of
the four tasks. Children’s behavior consisted of iterative transitions between the modes,
with the exception of the behavior on the closed, fact-based task that showed minimal
iterative transitions. Task characteristics, context, interface design of the ICDL, and
language influenced children’s information seeking behavior and the amount of iterations
they made between the modes. The models show new patterns of children’s information
seeking behavior that are Web-specific and that are absent from the three models used as
frameworks. Implications are made for research, practice, and system design
improvements.
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INTRODUCTION
Many studies have investigated the relationships between a user task and
information seeking behavior (Xie, 2007; Marchionini, 2006; Jarvelin & Ingwersen,
2004; Jarvelin & Wilson, 2003; Ingwersen & Jarvelin, 2005; Vakkari, 2003; Bystrom &
Jarvelin, 1995; Belkin, Chang, Downs, Saracevic, & Zhao, 1990; Saracevic & Kantor,
1988; Belkin, 1980). There has been a growing interest in examining task influence on
user information behavior in Web environments. Various types of tasks have been
investigated in previous research, including collaborative vs. individual (Hyldegård,
2009), open vs. closed (Bilal, Sarangthem, & Bachir, 2008); transactional vs.
informational (Terai, et al. 2008); complex/goal-oriented (Bartlett & Neugebauer, 2008);
directed vs. general purpose (Thatcher, 2008); factual vs. interpretive vs. exploratory
(Kim, 2007); known-item vs. subject-oriented (Kim & Allen, 2002); imposed vs. selfselected (Gross, 2004); and assigned vs. semi-assigned vs. fully self-generated (Bilal,
2002a; Bilal, 2001; Bilal, 2000).
Studies have also examined task specificity, monitoring, and interruption (Bailey,
Adamczyk, Chang, & Chilson, 2006); manipulation (Vakkari, 2003); and complexity
(Bystrom & Jarvelin, 1995; Vakkari, 1999). Arguments have recently been raised about
embedded tasks and their influence on information behavior (Wildemuth & Hughes;
2006). However, there are insufficient empirical studies that focused on young users (i.e.,
children), analyzed their task-based information seeking behavior in Web environments,
and depicted the behavior in graphical models. In addition, there is scarce body of
literature that investigated this behavior in Web interfaces that are multicultural and
multilingual in nature. The purpose of this study was to fill this research gap by modeling
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the task-based information seeking behavior of Arabic-speaking children in using the
International Children’s Digital Library (ICDL).
RESEARCH QUESTION
The overarching research question was: What task-based empirical models can be
generated based on Arabic-speaking children’s information seeking behavior in the ICDL
and what factors influenced this behavior (context, interface design, language, etc.)?
RELATED LITERATURE
Three bodies of literature are relevant for this study: 1.Task characteristics and children’s
information seeking, 2. Models of children’s information seeking behavior, and 3.
Children’s use of the ICDL.
1. Task characteristics and children’s information seeking
There is a small body of literature that investigated task influence on children’s
information seeking behavior in Web environments including digital libraries. In a recent
study of the ICDL, Bilal & Bachir (2007a-b) examined the information seeking behavior
and affective reactions of ten Arabic-speaking children, ages 6-10 on four tasks that
varied in nature (closed vs. open-ended), type (simple vs. complex), and administration
(assigned vs. semi-assigned vs. fully self-generated). Younger children (ages 6-7)
experienced difficulty performing two fact-based tasks (tasks 1 and 2). On task 1 (closed,
simple, and assigned), one child did not transcribe the answer to the task and another
provided an incorrect answer. Similarly, two children failed task 2 (simple known-title
search; closed, and assigned) as a result of skipping the task completely. All children
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completed tasks 3 and 4 (open-ended) successfully. Task 3 was open-ended, semicomplex, and semi-assigned, whereas Task 4 was open-ended, complex, and fully selfgenerated. Children’s information seeking was characterized by browsing as searching
the Arabic book collection using Arabic keywords was not supported in the ICDL.
In a series of three studies, Bilal investigated the cognitive, affective, and physical
information seeking behavior of twenty-two 7th grade science children in using
Yahooligans! Children were given three different tasks, one assigned and fact-based
(Bilal, 2000), one assigned and research-based (Bilal, 2001), and one fully self-generated
(Bilal, 2002a). Children’s interaction activities, success, and affective states were
influenced by each task. Children’s insufficient skills of the research process surfaced as
a problem especially on the open-ended task. Task characteristic also influenced
children’s affective states. Children preferred the fully self-generated task to the other
two tasks because they were able to choose topics of interest to them and modify them as
many times as needed..
Large & Beheshti (2000) examined middle school students’ Web use on a semiassigned open-ended task for a classroom project dealing with Winter Olympics. Students
were asked to a sport activity from the list of activities their teacher prepared. Children
worked collaboratively in a group of two to three, forming 20 groups. The authors
elicited the students’ reactions to the Web, including term selection, browsing,
multimedia content, information content, affect, and use of online help. However, no
reactions were gathered from the students about the tasks they performed.
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Using two fully assigned tasks, one closed (fact-based) and one open-ended
(research-based), Schacter, Chung, & Dorr (1998) investigated elementary school
students’ use of the Web and success. Children were much more successful on the openended than the fact-based task and exhibited different searching and browsing behavior
on each task. Neither the results of this study, nor those generated from the previous
studies yielded models of children’s interaction with the Web.
3. Models and children’s information seeking
There is scarcity of empirical work that modeled children’s information seeking
behavior, in general, and in using Web-based interfaces (e.g., digital libraries), in
particular. This section reviews studies that concluded with models of children’s
information seeking behavior in different Web environments.
Using the findings and data sets collected from two previous studies (Bilal &
Bachir, 2007a-b), Bilal, Sarangthem, & Bachir (2008) developed a general model of
Arabic-speaking children’s information seeking behavior in using the ICDL. The model
consisted of 7 modes of information behavior: Start, Recognize, Browse, Differentiate,
Read, Explore, and Finish. The model was informed by the models developed by Ellis &
Haugan (1997), Choo, Detlor, & Turnball (2000), and Marchionini (1995). The model
begins with the information need (cognitive activity) that is characterized by certainty
and anxiety (affective states) and ends with a need fulfillment that is characterized by
certainty and satisfaction. Based on this model, four task-based models were generated of
Arabic-speaking children’s information seeking behavior in the ICDL. These are
described later in this paper.
.
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Shenton (2007) developed a graphical model of information seeking failure of
young users, ages 3-18, based on data collected from six schools in Whitely Bay,
England. His model consists of five dimensions: Source Dimension, Knowledge
Dimension, Skills Dimension, Social Dimension, and Psychological Dimension. Each
dimension lists the issues that contributed to information seeking failure. Relationships
among the dimensions are clearly described. In discussing the model, Shenton made
reference to instances when children experienced difficulty finding information for a
general topic that was open-ended and the relative ease of locating information for a topic
that was closed in nature. However, his model does not show the “task” as a factor in any
of the dimensions. Further development of this model is needed to include task
influence, context in which information seeking takes place, and user characteristics.
The imposed query framework developed by Gross (1997) pointed out the issues
in queries assigned by teachers in elementary schools. Use of the framework was
investigated in varied information environments including adult reference desk in public
libraries where Gross & Saxton (2002) examined the effect of task type on user
assessment and satisfaction. The framework has demonstrated utility in informing
practice and guiding professional training in reference services. However, it is
descriptive and exploratory in nature. Additional work is needed to test the validity of the
framework in Web environments.
3. Children and the ICDL
The goal of the ICDL (http://www.icdlbooks.org ) is to build a collection of
digital books worldwide to children ages 3-13. The ICDL has a collection of over 3000
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books in over 45 languages including Arabic. The Arabic collection is small compared to
other foreign language collection, 26 books. These have been contributed by Bibliotheca
Alexandrina (Alexandria, Egypt). The ICDL was developed by involving children of
various ages in the design process. It has three main interfaces for book finding: Simple,
Advanced, and Location. The Simple interface allows searching by keyword and
language. The Advanced interface is a directory of subject categories. The Location
interface provides access to books by continent and countries.
In a two-part study, Bilal & Bachir (2007a-b) examined the information seeking
behavior of ten Arabic-speaking children, ages 6-10, in using the ICDL to find Arabic
books on four different tasks. The study took place at Bibliotheca Alexandrina in late
December 2004. In part one, Bilal & Bachir (2007a), assessed the cross-cultural usability
of the ICDL as an international Web interface. The authors developed a measure by
which they assessed children’s understanding of the ICDL interface design
representations and their meanings. Findings revealed that 80% of the children (older
ones, ages 8-10) identified the keyword search box in the default interface correctly and
understood its meaning, whereas younger children (20%) were unable to do so. No child
was able to identify the representations embedded in the Simple, Advanced, and Location
interfaces, although the features of each interface contained both textual and pictorial
representation. As to the navigation bar that resided on top of the screen, older children
identified and recognized the meaning of 3 out of the 4 icons, whereas younger children
were unable to do so. The design of the ICDL navigation controls (e.g., Back, Forward,
Home) was much more supportive of the navigation of all children than those provided in
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Internet Explorer. The ICDL was found to be more supportive of older than younger
children.
In the second part of this study, Bilal & Bachir (2007b) investigated the children’s
information seeking behavior, success, and affective reactions in using the ICDL.
Children were given four different tasks to perform in the ICDL: one assigned and factbased, one assigned known-title and fact-based, one semi-assigned and research-based,
and another fully self-generated. Children’s interaction activities were captured using
HyperCam, a software package that records all activities a user performs online (e.g.,
searching, browsing, clicking, scrolling, etc.). Their affective reactions were elicited
during exit interviews. Children’s information seeking behavior was characterized by
browsing using a single function; that is, looking under Arabic language from the pulldown menu to view the Arabic book collection. Lack of Arabic keyword searching
capability and representative icons for each of the search and browse options available in
both the Simple and Advanced interfaces surfaced as barriers to children’s full
exploitation of the ICDL.
Children expressed anxiety and uncertainty as to their ability to use the ICDL
successfully in the beginning of the study, but were certain and satisfied with their
performance after completing the tasks. Children enjoyed using the ICDL, reading books,
and looking at book images. They made recommendations for improving the design and
content of book collection of the ICDL.
Massey, Druin, & Weeks (2007) examined the affective reactions of twelve
children from four different countries to reading and reviewing books in the ICDL.
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Children were selected from the United States, Honduras, New Zealand, and Germany.
Children were given a book review form to use for answering five questions about each
book they read. They were given diverse books to read: a nonfiction book, a book in
English about an unfamiliar culture, a book in an unfamiliar language, a book with a
strong emotional message, and a chapter book. Children preferred books with happy
endings. Language capabilities were a stronger factor in choosing books than culture or
nationality as children did not choose books in languages they did not speak. When
children were unable to read books in different languages, they relied on images and
colors to understand the story and to express how it made them feel. Therefore, their
interpretations of book images influenced their emotional classifications of the books.
The findings provided insights into the role of emotions in children’s book selection and
reading, a factor that information professionals should consider in developing collections
and in advising children on what to read.
In examining the utility of the design of subject categories in the ICDL,
Hutchinson, Bederson, & Druin (2005) involved elementary school children who
searched and browsed in two new interfaces developed for the ICDL, one simultaneous
and another sequential to find information on six assigned tasks. They found that children
created more Boolean searches in the simultaneous interface than in the sequential
interface. Older children were more successful than younger ones, performed the tasks
faster, took less time, and needed less assistance in navigating the ICDL. The hierarchical
structure of subject categories (sequential) was less effective and supportive of children’s
information seeking than the simultaneous flat structure.
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In a related study, Reuter & Druin (2004) investigated the searching and book
selection behavior of ninety-six first- through fifth-grade students from the suburbs of
Maryland in using the ICDL. Age and gender influenced searching and book selection.
Younger children preferred simple and more interactive interfaces; whereas older
children favored more sophisticated interfaces. Children in grades one through five were
able to navigate the category structure to browse, but were unable to use Boolean logic.
The authors suggested new search and browse features to implement in the ICDL to
support younger children’s behavior.
These studies provided understanding of how younger and older children seek and
use information in a Web-based structured digital environment and informed us about
children’s information needs. However, none of the studies that involved children in the
U.S. yielded a model of their information seeking behavior. The present study is a first
attempt towards filling this research gap by modeling Arabic-speaking children’s taskbased information seeking behavior in the ICDL.
METHOD
The task-based models described in this study were developed based on data sets
generated from the previous studies (Bilal & Bachir, 2007a-b). The data sets were the
result of using both qualitative and quantitative methods.
Participants
Ten Arabic-speaking children ages 6-10 participated in data collection. Children
were recruited by staff at Bibliotheca Alexandrina’s Children’s Library. Four children
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were male and six were female. One child was six-years old, three were seven-years old,
two were eight, two were nine, one child was nine and a half years-old, and one was tenyears old. Children possessed adequate level of computer and Internet experience. Only
one child was familiar with the ICDL. All children had limited English language skills.
Children read books on a regular basis.
Procedures
Data collection took place in late December 2004 at Bibliotheca Alexandrina
Children’s Library. Children were divided into two groups of five and their use of the
ICDL was scheduled on two separate days. Children in a group were interviewed
individually to collect background information about them. Each group was escorted to a
computer lab equipped with five PCs HyperCam was installed on all PCs and made
available on their task bars. The researchers introduced the purpose of using the ICDL,
provided a demonstration of how to use it, explained the tasks to be performed, and gave
each child a written task sheet in the Arabic language with instructions. Each child’s
interaction activities on each task was captured, saved, and later replayed and burned
onto a CD. The researchers conducted exit interviews and gathered children’s affective
reactions about using the ICDL.
Tasks
Children were asked to perform these four tasks: 1. How many books does the
ICDL have in the Arabic language, and 2. Find a book in the Arabic language named
Dima and open the first page of the book, 3. Find a book about animals in the Arabic
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language and write the name of the book on your sheet, and 4. Find any book in the
Arabic language and read as many pages as you can.
Data Sets
Each child’s ICDL interaction activity on each task was coded with the child’s ID
number, and input into an excel sheet along with the sequence of the activity, a
description of the activity (e.g., scan, browse, select book, open page, move to next page),
and comments0r /observations about the activity. This process resulted in a total of forty
excel sheets on the four tasks (10 children x 4 tasks). These sheets formed the basis of the
data sets that were utilized to create the models. Data generated from the exit interviews
were also employed to reflect affective states.
Models used as frameworks
The models described in this paper were originated due to a lack of models that
depict children’s task-based information seeking behavior in Web environments. The
researchers were guided by three distinct models that are often used to depict user
information seeking behavior in digital environments: Ellis & Haugan (1997), Choo,
Detlor, & Turnball (2000), and Marchionini (1995). From each of these models, the
researchers adapted certain modes of behavior and moves associated with them. The
adapted modes and moves were first applied to generate a general model of Arabicspeaking children’s information seeking behavior in the ICDL (Bilal, Sarangthem, &
Bachir, 2008).
RESULTS
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This study sought to identify the type of task-based models that characterized
Arabic-speaking children’s information seeking behavior in the ICDL on various types of
task. Using the general model of developed based these children’s behavior in the ICDL
(Bilal, Sarangthem, & Bachir, 2008), we were able to generate four task-based models
that represented the children’s interaction with the ICDL. These are described below.
Task-based models
Children’s information seeking was characterized by seven modes of behavior
and a range of moves associated with them. The modes are labelled as M, the moves as
MV, and the transitions between the modes as T. Children’s use of navigation controls
(Forward, Backward, Zoom in/out, Page, Scroll, Home, etc.) were categorized under the
Explore mode. Since children backtracked more than used other navigation controls, we
categorized all backtracking activities under the Backtrack move and the rest of
navigation activities under the Navigate moves.
Underlying the children’s information seeking is the “information need” that was
motivated by each task. This need was associated with affective states children
experienced before and after using the ICDL. These states are reflected in these models
as bipolar representing the feelings before and after completing the tasks.
Modes and moves of information behavior
The following modes and moves of children’s information seeing characterize the
overall behavior on the four tasks. As seen in Figures 1-4, Searching is absent in the four
models due to lack of support of Arabic keyword searching in the ICDL.
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Start (M1): This is the first step for beginning a task after a child recognizes the
information need. It generally begins with scanning (M1V1) the default interface
features of the ICDL homepage (icons, Simple search, Advanced search, and Keyword
search). The resulting action is selecting (M1V2) the Simple search (by clicking on it). A
child returns to the homepage to restart a task or to choose a different interface feature to
explore.
Recognize (M2): In this step, a child scans (M2V1) the language pull-down menu from
the Simple Search interface and selects (M2V2) Arabic language. This activity results in
a display of thumbnails of Arabic books.
Browse (M3): In this step, a child browses the list of book thumbnails and moves to the
next page to view additional thumbnails. Two types of browsing are observed: Directed
and Semi-directed. Directed browsing includes viewing (M3V1) and verifying (M3V2)
the information. It is guided by a target such as that required for the assigned fact-based
task (find the number of Arabic books in the ICDL). Semi-directed browsing consists of
examining (M3V3) the information found. It is achieved when the target is less definite
such as the behavior observed on the fully self-generated open-ended task (find any book
you like and read as many pages as you can). Here, a child needs to examine the ICDL
Arabic book collection to identify a book of interest to read. Examining may result in
making a decision about a book of choice.
Differentiate (M4): In this step, a child filters and selects from the sources examined by
noticing differences in the books based on a book cover, images, book length, topic of
interest, affect (happy/sad), or other factors. Two types of discrimination behavior were
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observed: Directed and Undirected. Directed differentiation is focused and consists of
finding the specific aspect of interest in the filtered books (viewing) (M4V1). This
behavior was observed on task 2 (find a book named Dima) and three (find any book
about animals and open the first page of the book). Undirected differentiation has very
little focus and is characterized by paging through book thumbnails and titles and
sometimes jumping from one thumbnail on a screen to another one in a different screen
(sweeping) (M4V2). This behavior occurred on task four (find any book in Arabic and
read as many pages as you can), which is fully self-generated.
Read (M5): In this step, a child reads the total number of Arabic book collection (task
one), find the title of a book named Dima (task 2), find a book of interest about Animals
and reads the first three pages (task 3), or finds one or two books on any topic of interest
to read (task 4). Reading can be minimal (task 1) or maximal (task 4). Two types of
behaviors were Directed and Undirected. Directed reading consists of viewing (M5V1)
that entails engagement to achieve a goal (observed on tasks 1-4). Undirected reading is
characterized by flipping (M5V2) book pages and sometimes without actually reading
the text. Flipping takes less time than viewing and engaging in reading. This behavior
occurred more on the semi-self-generated and fully self-generated tasks (3-4) where more
freedom for making decisions on book selection and reading was provided.
Explore (M6): In this step, a child activates selected navigation controls (e.g., icons,
Back, Forward, and Home buttons; arrows, etc.) embedded in the ICDL and/or the
Internet Explorer browser. Exploration occurred throughout information seeking, but was
more frequent during book reading. For example, a child clicks on the plus sign (+) icon
located at the top navigation bar of the screen and finds that a page is amplified. The
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child then clicks on the minus sign (-) and the page returns to its original size. Use of the
Back button was more frequent than the other navigation controls. Therefore, the
Explore mode was categorized into two moves: Navigate (M6V1) that includes use of
navigation controls except for backtracking, and Backtrack (M6V2) that consists of use
of the ICDL back arrows and/or Internet Explorer Back button.
Finish (M7): In this step, a child ends a task and moves to another until all tasks are
completed. Finish results in note taking based on task requirements. As were instructed,
children used the task sheet to transcribe the number of Arabic books in the ICDL (Task
1) and the title of the book they selected about Animals (Task 3).
The iterative transitions between the seven modes of information seeking
behavior shown in the four models were influenced by the characteristics of the four
tasks. The iterative transitions children made to find information increased with task
complexity. On the fact-based task (simple and closed), children’s behavior was of the
linear type as iterative transitions between the modes were minimal (Figure 1). On Task
2, which was a step up in complexity (simple, known-title search), children exhibited
more interaction activities and iterative transitions in their behavior. As shown in Figure
2, children’s iterations focused on Browse-Explore-Differentiate-Read-DifferentiateBrowse-Start-Browse.
On Task 3 (open-ended), children’s behavior included an increased number of
transitions between the modes of behavior over Task 2 and Task 4. This finding was
unexpected. However, it is believed that since the topic for Task 3 was semi selfgenerated (main topic assigned was Animals and children had to find a book of interest
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on this topic) children were uncertain as to whether the books they were viewing were of
interest or satisfied the task requirements. Uncertainty is an affective state that influences
cognition and actions (Nahl & Bilal, 2007; Kuhlthau, 2004). This explanation is justified
further based on the number of moves children exhibited under the Differentiate mode
(MV=29), which was the highest on all tasks. Differentiate consists of filtering what has
been viewed based on specific criteria. On Task 3, children had to employ their filtering
skills to find a book about “animals” and to write its title on the task sheet. Conversely,
children did not have to be concerned about selecting a book about a specific topic for
Task 4, which was fully self-generated.
On Task 4, children could have employed their own book selection criteria based
on a book title, cover, images, color, themes, affect, and/or subject matter rather than one
sole dictated subject matter (i.e., Animals) as was the case on Task 3. The fact that their
iterative transitions on Task 3 were lower than those made on Task 4 can also be
attributed to their prior exposure to the Arabic book collection to perform Tasks 1-3.
The requirements of Task 4 influenced children’s amount of reading. Children
were asked to read as many pages as they could in the book they chose. The fact that they
made MV187 reading moves is not surprising because they are avid readers, as was
found in the data generated from the open interview (Bilal & Bachir, 2007b). In fact, two
children read two books instead of one using the same amount of time other children took
to read one book.
Other Factors influencing information seeking
Beside the tasks characteristics, children’s behavior was impacted by the design of the
ICDL, language, and context.
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ICDL design and information behavior
Children desired to find book using keyword, but were unable to do so due to lack
of Arabic keyword searching feature in the ICDL. Lack of keyword searching capability
in the Arabic language was a barrier to children’s use of analytic searching. One child
attempted keyword searching using Arabic words but failed due to lack of indexing of
these words for the Arabic book collection.
Language
Children were unable to browse the subject taxonomies (Advanced interface), or
the Location interface due not only to language barrier, but also to lack of iconic
representation of these taxonomies. Had children been able to use the keyword searching
function in Arabic, we would have been able to analyze their analytic search behavior
and identify the moves associated with it.
Context
Two contexts could have also influenced children’s information seeking behavior.
The first one is the non-naturalistic environment where children performed the tasks as
volunteers. In addition, the tasks were not part of everyday life information seeking or of
a classroom environment where children have more freedom in pursuing the tasks and
without time constraints, although they did not have problems completing the tasks
within the time allotted for each task. The second one is the ICDL Web space that is
structured and small, compared to a search engine web space that is characterized by
cognitive overload and disorientation (Bilal, 2000; Bilal, 2001; Bilal, 2002a). Hence,
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getting lost in the ICDL Web space was unlikely to occur, especially since children’s
attention was focused on one collection (e.g., Arabic) to perform the tasks. Although
providing a structured space for children to navigate and find information is fruitful,
enjoyable, and less distracting than using the whole Web, it can limit their interaction
behavior, creativity, and information discovery to a limited space and small collections.
To circumvent this limitation, the ICDL should include links to other book collections
available on the Web.
Conclusion
This study described and analyzed four task-based models that were generated
based on data sets collected from two previous studies of Arabic-children’s information
seeking behavior in using the ICDL (Bilal & Bachir, 2007a-b). The four task-based
models were guided by the general model of the children’s information behavior that was
guided by the models of Ellis & Haugan (1997), Choo, Detlor, & Turnball (2000), and
Marchionini (1995). The four task-based models are empirical in nature and consist of
seven modes of behavior: Start, Recognize, Browse, Examine, Differentiate, Read,
Explore, and Finish. The Read and Explore along with affective reactions shown in the
models are new patterns of behavior. The Read mode may be ICDL-specific, whereas the
Explore mode is Web-specific.
The overall children’s behavior was non-linear in nature, with the exception of the
behavior shown on the fact-based task that was characterized by minimal iterative
transitions. This finding indicates that in using a structured Web environment such as the
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ICDL to find fact-based information, one should expect children to be sequential in their
modes of behavior. Further studies are needed to validate this finding.
The task-based models showed the children’s affective reactions before and after
completing each task. The certainty and confidence children gained after completing the
tasks was due to their satisfaction with their performance. Future research should
examine children’s affective reactions during information seeking to identify stages of
the process where intervention is needed (Bilal, 2007).
Children’s task-based information seeking behavior represented in the four taskbased models was influenced by task characteristics, context, interface design of the
ICDL, and language. Researchers interested in using the ICDL to explore children’s
information seeking behavior should be cognizant that while the ICDL is structured Web
space that may not impose cognitive overload and disorientation, it can restrict children’s
information discovery due to its small book collection in a limited number of languages.
The task-based models could be used as a basis for developing refined and
validated models of children’s information seeking behavior in any Web environment.
The more these models are validated in future research, the greater our understanding of
children’s behavior and the factors influencing them. Such understanding can inform
practice, research, and system design improvements.
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