CHAPTER 9
PLANT MORPHOLOGY
REVIEW QUESTIONS
PLANT STRUCTURE: GENERAL, ROOTS, AND STEMS/SHOOTS
1. Name the major plant organs.
Rhizoids, thallus, shoots, roots, stem, leaf, leaf primordia, veins, costa, buds, sporangium, capsule, cone, strobilus,
ovule, seed, flower, fruit.
2. What are the continuously actively dividing cell regions of a plant called and where are they located?
Apical meristems - occur at the tips of roots and shoots.
3. What is meant by plant habit and what are the types of plant habit?
Plant habit is the general form of the plant in terms of stem duration, branching pattern, development or texture.
Types are herb (incl. geophyte), vine (incl. liana), subshrub, shrub, and tree.
4. Name various types of plant habitat.
Plant habitats can include terrestrial, aquatic, epiphytic, submersed, floating, emergent, or saxicolous.
5. Name and define five different types of plant life forms.
therophyte, an annual plant; geophyte, a perennial herb with underground perennating rootstocks such as bulbs,
corms, rhizomes; epiphyte, a plant growing on another plant, e.g., Tillandsia (Bromeliaceae); halophyte, a saltadapted plant; succulent, a plant with fleshy stems (stem succulents, e.g., cacti) or leaves (leaf succulents, e.g.,
members of Aizoaceae or Crassulaceae); and xerophyte, a plant adapted to live in a dry, generally hot environment.
6. What is the function of roots?
Roots function in absorption of water and minerals and anchorage.
7. What are the root cap, root hair, adventitious root, and lateral root?
Root cap - protects the root apical meristem and provides lubrication as the root grows into the soil.
Root hair - hair-like extensions of epidermal cells that increase surface area for water an mineral absorption.
Adventitious root - root that arises from a non-root organ.
Lateral root - roots that arise from other roots.
8. What is the difference between a taproot and a fibrous root system?
If the primary root is dominant, the plant has a taproot system. If the primary root withers and subsequent roots are
adventitious, the plant has fibrous root system.
9. What is a shoot?
A shoot is a stem plus all its associated leaves.
10. What is a bud, where do buds typically develop, and what do they develop into?
A bud is an immature shoot system that develops from a bud primordium in the axil and eventually develop into
mature shoot systems of lateral branches, flowers or inflorescences.
11. Define node, internode.
A node is the point of attachment of a leaf to a stem, and space between nodes is called the internode.
12. What is the difference between a bulb, corm, and tuber? Between a rhizome, caudex, and stolon (runner)?
A bulb is a rootstock where the shoot consists of a small amount of vertical stem tissue and many thick, fleshy storage
leaves. Corms spherical (globose) stem tissue and have scanty scale-like leaves. Tubers have underground storage
stems with outer buds and lacking storage leaves or protective scales.
A rhizome is a rootstock with a horizontal, underground stem with short internodes, while a caudex is an
undifferentiated vertical stem, and a stolon is a stem with long internodes that runs on or just below the surface of the
ground, generally terminating in a new plantlet.
13. What is the difference between a caudiciform stem and a pachycaul?
A caudiciform stem is a low, swollen, perennial storage stem from which arises annual or nonpersistent
photosynthetic shoots. A pachycaul is a woody, trunk-like stem, swollen basally for storage.
14. What is a thorn and how does it differ from a spine or prickle?
A thorn is a sharp modified stem or shoot, while a spine is a sharp modified leaf, and a prickle is a sharp epidermal
structure.
15. Define: tiller, burl, pseudobulb, short shoot, tendril.
Tiller - a proliferative grass shoot, typically growing in masses from axillary buds at the base of the stem.
Burl - also called a lignotuber, a largely protective and regenerative stem following fires.
Pseudobulb - a short, erect, aerial storage or propagative stem of some epiphytic orchids.
Short shoot - also called a fascicle, spur shoot, or dwarf shoot. A modified shot with short internodes from which
flowers or leaves are born. They enable the production of leaves or reproductive organs relatively quickly, with
minimal stem tissue being formed.
Tendril - a long, slender, coiling branch, adapted for climbing.
16. Name the difference between acaulescent and caulescent; between prostrate, repent, and decumbent. What is the
corresponding character for all of these?
Acaulescent plants lack above-ground stems other than the inflorescence axis, but caulescent plants have an aboveground stem. Prostrate plants have stems that lie flat on the ground and do not root at the nodes, repent plants have
stems that lie on the ground and do root at the nodes, and decumbent plants have stems that are basally prostrate but
apically ascending. The character is stem habit.
17. What is the difference between monopodial and sympodial?
Monopodial branching pattern is where the given stem axis is derived from growth of a single apical meristem while
sympodial branching pattern is where a given axis is made up of numerous units derived from separate apical
meristems.
18. Draw a typical twig and label terminal bud, axillary bud, leaf scar, vascular bundle scars, lenticels.
See Figure 9.6.
19. What is the difference between an axillary, terminal, and pseudoterminal bud? A collateral and superposed bud?
Axillary buds are formed in the axils of leaves, terminal buds are also called apical buds and contain the original
apical meristem, and pseudoterminal buds are axillary buds near an aborted terminal apical bud that continue
extension growth. Collateral buds are two or more axillary buds that are oriented sideways while superposed buds are
two or more axillary buds oriented vertically.
PLANT STRUCTURE: LEAVES
20. What is the difference between a bract and a scale?
A bract is a modified leaf that is smaller and shaped differently from the main photosynthetic leaves, while a scale is a
non-green leaf that protects either the apical meristem and leaf primordia, or an underground rootstock as in the
internodes of a rhizome.
21. Name some specialized modifications of leaves associated with flowers or inflorescences.
Bracts, bractlets, bracteoles, chaff or paleae, glumes, lemma, phyllary, spathe.
22. From what is a phyllode derived?
Phyllodes are derived from ancestrally compound leaves by loss of the rachis and leaflets.
23. What is a spine and what are the three major types?
A spine is a sharp-pointed leaf, the three major types being leaf spines, petiolar spines, and leaflet spines.
24. Name three modifications of leaves found in carnivorous plants.
Pitcher leaves, tentacular leaves, and trap leaves.
25. Name five leaf types.
Simple, pinnately compound, bipinnately compound, palmately compound, trifoliolate, biternate.
26. What are the basic components of a simple leaf?
Blade, petiole, stipules.
27. Draw a bipinnately compound leaf and label: leaflet, petiole, petiolule, rachis, rachilla, stipule, stipel.
See Fig. 9.9.
28. What is the difference between imparipinnate and paripinnate? Trifoliolate and palmate? Geminate-pinnate and
bipinnately compound? Unifoliolate and simple?
A pinnate leaf is imparipinnate if it has a terminal leaflet, but a pinnate leaf is paripinnate if it does not have a
terminal leaflet. A compound leaf with only three leaflets is called trifoliolate, but a compound leaf with four or more
leaflets arising from a common point is called palmate. A geminate-pinnate leaf is compound with two rachillae, each
bearing a pinnate arrangement of leaflets, but a bipinnately compound leaf has two orders of pinnate axes (a
compound leaf of compound leaves). A unifoliolate leaf is a single leaflet attached to the apex of a petiole. It is derived
from the reduction of an ancestrally compound leaf. A simple leaf bears one continuous blade attached to the stem
either by a petiole or other forms.
29. Name four different types of leaf attachment.
Petiolate, sessile, sheathing, decurrent, amplexicaul, perfoliate, and connate-perfoliate.
30. What is the difference between parallel and penni-parallel? Between pinnate-netted, palmate-netted, and Parallel
venation is where the primary and secondary veins are parallel to one another, but penni-parallel venation is where
secondary veins arise from along the axis of a primary vein and are parallel to one another. Pinnately-netted venation
has secondary veins arising along the length of a single primary vein, with veinlets forming an interconnected net-like
pattern, while palmate-netted venation is where four or more primary veins arise from a common point at the base of
the blade, and ternate-netted venation has three primary veins arising from a common point at the base of the blade.
31. Name four major types of specialized venation types.
Palinactinodromous, campylodromous, brochidromous, flabellate.
PLANT STRUCTURE: FLOWERS AND PERIANTH
32. Draw a typical flower and label all the parts, including collective terms.
See Fig. 9.13.
33. Name the two basic types of flower sex.
Perfect (bisexual) and imperfect (unisexual).
34. Name the three basic types of plant sex. What is the corresponding type of flower sex for each?
Hermaphroditic plants only have bisexual flowers. Monoecious plants only have unisexual flowers, with staminate and
pistillate flowers on the same individual. Dioecious plants only have unisexual flowers with staminate and pistillate
flowers on different individuals.
35. Draw a zygomorphic corolla and label anterior lobe(s) and posterior lobe(s).
See Fig. 9.14, 9.19 (upper left).
36. What is the difference between radial and biradial symmetry?
Radial symmetry has 3 or more planes of symmetry, while biradial symmetry only has two planes of symmetry.
37. What is the difference between protandrous and protogynous? Between centrifugal and centripetal? Between
cleistogamous and chasmogamous? development
Protandrous means stamens developing or pollen release occurring, prior to the maturation of carpels or stigmas
being receptive. Protogynous means the reverse.
Centrifugal refers to developing from the center toward the outside while centripetal refers to development from the
outside toward the center region
38. What is a claw, corona, hypanthium, limb, lip, lobe, spur, throat, tube?
A claw is an attenuate base of a sepal or petal. A corona is a crown-like outgrowth between stamens and corolla. A
hypanthium is a generally tubular or cup-shaped structure a the top rim of which are attached the calyx, corolla and
adroecium. A limb is the expanded portion of corolla or calyx above the tube, throat, or claw. A lip is either of two
variously shaped parts into which a calyx or corolla is divided. A lobe is a segment of a synsepalous calyx or
sympetalous corolla. A spur is a tubular, rounded or pointed projection from the calyx or corolla, functioning to
contain nectar. A throat is an open, expanded region of a perianth, usually of a sympetalous corolla. A tube is a
cylindrically shaped perianth or region of the perianth, usually of a sympetalous corolla.
39. What are the two major types of perianth arrangement?
Spiral and whorled.
40. What is perianth cycly?
Perianth cycly refers to the number of whorls of perianth parts.
41. What is the difference between dichlamydeous and homochlamydeous?
Dichlamydeous describes a perianth composed of a distinct outer calyx and inner corolla. Homochlamydeous
describes a perianth composed of similar parts, each part of a tepal.
42. Name two types of calyx fusion; of corolla fusion.
Aposepalous and synsepalous; apopetalous and sympetalous.
43. Define or draw the following perianth types: bilabiate, campanulate, rotate, salverform, urceolate.
Bilabiate means two-lipped, with two, generally upper and lower segments. Campanulate means bell-shaped, with a
basally apopetalous corolla or apotepalous perianth. Rotate means with a short tube and wide limbs oriented at right
angles to the tube. Salverform means trumpet-shaped, with a long, slender tube and flaring limbs at right angles to
the tube. Urceolate means urn-shaped, expanded at the base and constricted at apex.
44. Draw and label a petal with a claw and limb. What is the name of this perianth type?
See 9.19, lower right. A petal with an attenuate base with an expanded portion above. This is called unguiculate.
45. Define convolute, imbricate, and valvate. What is the corresponding character?
Convolute means imbricate with perianth parts of a single whorl overlapping at one margin, being overlapped at the
other. Imbricate means overlapping perianth parts. Valvate means a whorl of perianth parts meeting at the margins,
not overlapping. These are perianth aestivation character states.
PLANT STRUCTURE: ANDROECIUM
46. Name the two parts of a stamen; the two parts of an anther.
Anther and filament. Thecae and connective.
47. What is the difference between stamen arrangement and stamen position?
Stamen arrangement is the placement of stamens relative to one another, while stamen postion is position of stamens
relative to other, unlike floral parts.
48. What is the difference between didymous, didynamous, and tetradynamous? What is the character?
Didymous means with stamens in two equal pairs, didynamous means with stamens in two unequal pairs, and
tetradynamous means with stamens in two groups of four long and two short. The character is stamen arrangement.
49. What is the difference between antipetalous, antisepalous, and diplostemonous?
Antipetalous means stamen postion is in line the petals or corolla lobes, antisepalous means the stamens are positioned
between the sepals or calyx lobes, and diplostemonous means the outer whorl of stamens is opposite the sepals and the
inner whorl is opposite the petals.
50. Do the above terms refer to stamen arrangement or to stamen position?
Stamen position.
51. What is the difference between exserted and inserted? What is the character?
Exserted means the stamens protrude beyond the perianth, while inserted means the stamens are included with the
perianth. The character is stamen insertion.
52. What is the term for fusion of stamens to the corolla?
Epipetalous.
53. What is the term for fusion of all the filaments together?
Monadelphous.
54. What is the term for fusion of the filaments into two groups?
Diadelphous.
55. What is a monothecal anther?
A monothecal anther has one theca with typically two microsporangia.
56. Name three types of anther attachment.
Basifixed, dorsifixed, subbasifixed.
57. Name two types of anther dehiscence with regard to (a) the shape of the opening; (b) the direction of the opening.
a) Poricidal, valular, longitudinal, transverse.
b) extrorse, introrse, latrorse.
58. What is a nectary and what are some types of nectaries?
Nectaries are specialized nectar-producing structures of the flowers. Perigonal nectaries and septal nectaries are two
types.
PLANT STRUCTURE: GYNOECIUM
59. What is the difference between a gynoecium, carpel, and pistil?
A gynoecium is all female organs of a flower. A carpel is a unit of the gynoecium that collectively makes a pistil. A
pistil is composed of an ovary, one or more styles, and or one or more stigmas.
60. What are the three parts of a pistil? What is a locule?
Pistils are made of ovaries, styles, and stigmas. A locule is an ovary cavity, enclosed by the ovary walls and septa.
61. Name the two types of gynoecial fusion.
Apocarpous and syncarpous (also unicarpellous, but not really a fusion, as there is only 1 carpel).
62. How is carpel number determined?
If the gynoecium is apocarpous (carpels distinct), then the number of carpels is equal to the number of pistils. If there
is only one pistil, the carpel number can be one or more fused carpels. If there is one pistil, the carpel number is equal
to the number of stigmas or styles, if greater than one. If a single pistil has only one stigma or style, the ovary must be
dissected to reveal the carpel number. If a single pistil has one stigma or style and is unilocular, the number of carpel
is equal to the number of placentae.
63. Name and draw the two basic types of ovary attachment and ovary position.
Sessile and stipitate. See Fig. 9.30.
Superior and inferior. See Fig. 9.32.
64. What does perianth/androecial position mean? Name and distinguish between four of these.
This term describes the placement of the perianth and androecium relative to both the ovary and to a hypanthium, if
present.
Hypogynous means the sepals, petals, and stamens are attached the base of a superior ovary. Epigynous means the
sepals, petals and stamens are attached at the apex of an inferior ovary. Epihypogynous means the sepals, petals and
stamens are attached at the middle of the ovary. Perigynous means the hypanthium is attached at the base of the
ovary.
65. What is the difference between axile and parietal placentation? Between basal and apical?
Axile means the placentae are arising from a column in a compound ovary with septa. Parietal means placentae are
on the ovary walls or upon protruding partitions of a unilocular, compound ovary. Basal means a placenta occurs at
the base of an ovary, while apical means a placenta occurs at the top of a septate ovary.
66. Name the basic ovule parts, and name and define three ovule types and three ovule positions.
Ovule Parts: funiculus, nucellus, integument(s), raphe, micropyle.
Ovule Types: An anatropous ovule is one in which curvature during development results in displacement of the
micropyle to a position adjacent to the funiculus base; this is the most common ovule type of the angiosperms and is
presumed to be ancestral. An orthotropous [atropous] ovule is one in which no curvature takes place during
development; the micropyle is positioned opposite the funiculus base.A campylotropous ovule type is one in which the
nucellus is bent only along the lower side.
Ovule Positions: An epitropous ovule is one in which the micropyle points distally (toward the flower apex). This type
can be further divided into epitropous-dorsal, in which the raphe is dorsal (abaxial, pointing away from the central
floral or ovary axis) or epitropous-ventral, in which the raphe is ventral (adaxial, pointing toward the central floral or
ovary axis). A hypotropous ovule is one in which the micropyle points proximally. This type can be further divided
into hypotropous-dorsal, in which the raphe is dorsal (abaxial, pointing away from the central floral or ovary axis) or
hypotropous-ventral, in which the raphe is ventral (adaxial, pointing toward the central floral or ovary axis). A final
position type is a pleurotropous ovule, one in which the micropyle points to the side. This type can be further divided
into pleurotropous-dorsal, in which the raphe is above or pleurotropous-ventral, in which the raphe is below.
67. What is a gynobasic style?
It is one that arises from the base of the ovary.
PLANT STRUCTURE: INFLORESCENCES
68. What are two types of specialized bracts associated with inflorescences?
Inflorescence bracts/Involucre - a group or cluster of bracts subtending an entire inflorescence.
Spathe - an enlarged sometimes colored bract subtending and usually enclosing an inflorescence
69. What is the difference between a pedicel and a peduncle?
A pedicel is the stalk of a single flower, while a peduncle is the stalk of an entire inflorescence.
70. Define compound receptacle.
It is a mass of tissue at the apex of a peduncle that bears more than one flower.
71. What are three types of inflorescence position?
Axillary - in which the entire inflorescence is positioned in the axil of the nearest vegetative leaf
Terminal - in which the inflorescence develops as part of a terminal shoot that gave rise to the nearest vegetative
leaves
Cauliflorous, in which the inflorescence grows directly from a woody trunk.
72. What is the difference between determinate and indeterminate inflorescence development?
A determinate inflorescence develops with the apical meristem of the primary inflorescence axis terminates in a
flower. Indeterminate inflorescences have the apical meristem not developing into a flower, typically with the basal
flowers maturing first.
73. What is a dichasium?
It is a cyme that develops along two axes, forming one or more pairs of opposite, lateral axes.
74. How does a monochasium differ and what are two major types?
It only develops along one axis, with helicoids and scorpioid cymes being two major types.
75. What is a “ray” in an inflorescence?
A ray is a secondary axis in a secondary inflorescence.
76. What is the difference between a raceme and a spike? What is the inflorescence development of both?
A raceme is an indeterminate inflorescence with a single axis bearing pedicellate flowers, while a spike has sessile
flowers. They are both indeterminate.
77. What is the difference between a raceme and a panicle?
A raceme consists of a single axis bearing pedicellate flowers. A panicle is a branched raceme having several branched
axes.
78. What is the difference between an umbel and a corymb? Between an umbel and compound umbel?
An umbel is an inflorescence that is either flat-topped or convex with pedicels attached at one point on a peduncle. A
corymb is an indeterminate inflorescence consisting of a single axis with lateral axes and/ or pedicels bearing flattopped or convex flowers. A compound umbel is one in which the peduncle bears secondary axes attached at one
point, with simple umbels attached at the tip of the rays.
79. What is the difference between a thyrse and verticillaster?
A thryse is a raceme of cymes, in which the main axis is indeterminate but the opposite, lateral unit inflorescences are
pedicellate cymes, typically either simple dichasia, compound dichasia, or compound cymes. A verticillaster is
essentially a “spike of opposite cymes,” similar to a thryse in having an indeterminate main axis but differing in that
the lateral cymes have very reduced to absent intermodal axes and pedicels, giving a congested appearance.
80. Name a taxonomic group characterized by a compound umbel; cyathium; head; hypanthodium; spadix.
Apiaceae – compound umbel
Euphoria – cyathium
Asteraceae – head
Ficus – hypanthodium
Araceae - spadix
PLANT STRUCTURE: FRUITS AND SEEDS
81. What are the differences between simple, aggregate, and multiple fruits?
An aggregate fruit is one derived from two or more pistils of one flower. A simple fruit is a fruit derived from a single
pistil of one flower and a multiple fruit is derived from many coalescent flowers.
82. What features are used to define and classify fruit types?
Whether the fruit is fleshy or dry at maturity, whether indehiscent or dehiscent, if dehiscent, the type of dehiscence,
carpel and locule number, seed/ovule number, placentation, structure of the pericarp wall and ovary position.
83. What is a schizocarp? A mericarp? A valve?
A schizocarp is a dry, dehiscent fruit type derived from a two or more loculed compound ovary in which the locules
separate at maturity. A mericarp is the portion of the fruit that separates from the ovary as a distinct unit completely
enclosing the seed. A valve is the portion of the pericarp wall that splits off, but does not enclose the seed; valves may
remain attached to the fruit or may fall off.
84. What are the similarities and differences between an achene, grain (caryopsis), and a nut?
An achene is a one-seeded, dry, indehiscent fruit with seed attached at one point. A caryopsis is a one-seeded, dry,
indehiscent fruit with the seed coat adnate to pericarp wall. A nut is a one-seeded, dry indehiscent fruit with a hard
pericarp, usually derived from a one-loculed ovary.
85. What are the differences between loculicidal, septicidal, and circumscissile capsules?
Loculicidal capsules - have longitudinal lines of dehiscence radially aligned with the locules
Septicial capsules - have longitudinal lines of dehiscence radially aligned with the ovary septa
Circumscissile capsules - have a transverse line of dehiscence, typically forming a terminal lid or operculum.
86. What are the similarities and differences between a follicle, legume, and silique?
Follicle - a dry, dehiscent fruit derived from one carpel that splits along one suture
Legume is a dry, dehiscent fruit derived from one carpel that splits along two longitudinal sutures
Silique is a dry dehiscent fruit derived from a two-carpeled ovary that dehisces along two sutures but that has a
persistent partition.
87. What is the difference between a silique and a silicle? What family do they occur in?
A silicle is about as broad as or broader than long and a silique is longer that broad. They occur in the Brassicaceae
family.
88. What is the name given to a winged fruit?
A samara is a winged, dry, usually indehiscent fruit.
89. How does a berry differ from a drupe or a hesperidium?
Berry - general, unspecialized term for a fruit with a succulent pericarp.
Drupe is a fruit with a hard, stony endocarp and a fleshy mesocarp
Hesperidium is a septate fleshy fruit with a thick-skinned, leathery outer pericarp wall and fleshy modified trichomes
arising from the inner walls.
90. What is the placentation, ovary position, and texture of a pepo? In what family are they found?
A pepo is a nonseptate fleshy fruit with parietal placentation and a leathery exocarp derived from an inferior ovary,
the fruit type of the Cucurbitaceae.
91. A pome consists of much outer fleshy tissue derived from what? What is the ovary position? What is an example of a
plant with pomes?
A pome is a fleshy fruit with a cartilaginous endocarp derived from an inferior ovary, with the bulk of the fleshy
tissue derived from the outer, adnate hypanthial tissue, as in Malus (apple) and Pyrus (pear).
92. Name two types of aggregate fruits.
Two types of aggregate fruits include achenecetum and drupecetum.
93. What types of fruits include the bur, sorosis, and syconium?
Multiple Fruits.
94. Name two types of seed based on endosperm type; seed germination type.
Two types of seed based on endosperm type are endospermous and nonendospermous. Based on germination type are
hypogeous and epigeous
95. What is a diaspore? Name three types of diaspore dispersal.
The dispersal unit of a plant.
1) anemochory, dispersal by wind; 2) autochory, self-dispersal; hydrochory, dispersal by water; myrmecochory,
dispersal by ants; and zoochory, general dispersal by animals (either exozoic, in which a fruit or seed becomes
attached to and carried away by an animal or endozoic, in which a fruit or seed is eaten and passes out via
theanimal’s feces unharmed.
GENERAL TERMINOLOGY: COLOR, NUMBER, TEXTURE, AND FUSION
96. What is the difference between color and color pattern? Name and define a color pattern character state.
Color is a measure of the wavelengths of light reflected from or transmitted through an object. Color pattern is a
measure of the distribution of colors on an object. One color pattern character state is maculate, or spotted, with
small spots on a more or less uniform background.
97. What is the difference between cycly and merosity? Give an example of each.
Cycly is the number of cycles or whorls of parts
Terms such as monocyclic or uniseriate can be used to describe cycly.
Merosity is the number of parts per whorl or cycle. Merosity is described in terms such as bimerous, a whorl with
two members, trimerous, a whorl with three members and so on.
98. What is the difference between coriaceous and indurate? Between scarious and succulent? What is the character for
these?
Coriaceous means it has a thick, leathery but somewhat flexible internal structural consistency. Indurate refers to a
hardened and inflexible texture. Scarious objects have a thin and dry appearing, usually whitish or brownish texture.
And succulent refers to a fleshy and juicy texture. The character is texture.
99. What is the difference between connate and distinct? Between adnate and free? Between adherent and coherent? What is
the character for these?
Connate – integral fusion of like parts; Distinct – like parts are unfused and separate. Adnate – integral fusion of
unlike parts; free – unlike parts unfused and separate. Adherent – with unlike parts joined, but only superficially;
coherent – with like parts joined but only superficially. The character is fusion.
GENERAL TERMINOLOGY: SHAPE
100. Define the following terms for three-dimensional shapes: capitate, clavate, filiform, pilate, terete.
Capitate is head-shaped, spherical with a short basal stock.
Clavate means club-shaped, cylindrical with a gradual tapering, ending in a rounded end.
Filiform means thread-like or filamentous, long, thin and typically flexuous.
Pilate means a long cylindrical stalk terminating in a globose or ellipsoid apical thickening.
Terete means cylindrical.
101. What is the difference between lanceolate, ovate, and lance-ovate? Between lanceolate and oblanceolate? (Draw.)
Lanceolate is a shape with curved margins, the widest point near the base with a length:width ration between 6:1 and
3:1. Ovate is similar but length:width ration between 2:1 and 3:2. Lance-ovate is intermediate between the two,
having between 3:1 and 2:1. Oblanceolate has the same ration as lanceolate but the widest part is near the apex
102. What is the difference between ovate and obovate? Between oblanceolate and spatulate? (Draw.)
Ovate and obovate have the same ration, but ovate has the widest part at the base and obovate has the widest part at
the apex. Spatulate is similar to oblanceolate but has an attenuate base.
103. What is the difference between elliptic and oblong? Between oblong and linear? (Draw.)
Elliptic and oblong have the same ratio 2:1-3:2 but oblong forms have straight margins, and elliptic forms have
symmetrically curved margins. Linear shapes have a ration between 12:1 and 6:1 while oblong has a ration between
2:1 and 3:2, but both have straight margins.
104. What is the difference between cordate and reniform? (Draw.)
Cordate is heart-shaped with two rounded basal lobes intersecting at a sharp angle, the margins above lobes smoothly
rounded. Reniform is kidney-shaped with two rounded, basal lobes, smoothly concave at the intersection of the lobes.
105. What is the difference between hastate and sagittate? (Draw.)
Hastate is a base having two lobes pointed and oriented outwards perpendicular to the central axis, while sagittate has
two lobes that point and are oriented downward, away from the apex.
106. What does peltate mean?
Peltate means that the petiole is attach away from the margin on the underside of the blade.
107. What does an attenuate base mean? An oblique base? A sagittate base? A cuneate base?
An attenuate base has sides that are incurved or are approximately straight. An oblique base is asymmetrical. A
sagittate base has two basal lobes, more or less pointed and oriented downward. A cuneate base has straight margins
that intersect at an angle between 45-90 degrees.
108. What is the difference between entire, crenate, serrate, and dentate? What character do these refer to?
Entire means without teeth, crenate means rounded to obtuse teeth pointing outward at right angles, serrate means
sharp pointed teeth and ascending, and dentate means shark like teeth that point outward at right angles from the leaf
margin. These refer to margin.
109. What is the difference between crenate and crenulate? Serrate and serrulate? Dentate and denticulate?
Crenate teeth are cut 1/16 – 1/8 of the distance to the midrib while crenulated teeth cut up to 1/16 the distance to the
midrib. Serrate and serrulate differ from one another in the same regard as do dentate and denticulate.
110. Define ciliate, ciliolate, filiferous.
Ciliate means trichomes protruding from margins. Ciliolate means minute trichomes protruding from margins.
Filiferous means margins bearing coarse, fiberlike structures.
111. What is the difference between acuminate, narrowly acute, acute, and obtuse (apex)? What are the corresponding base
terms?
Acuminate means apical margins abruptly incurved, with the apical intersection less than 45 degrees. Narrowly acute
is similar but has straight apical margins, acute is similar but has a wider apical intersection angle (45-90 degrees).
Obtuse has an apical intersection angle greater than 90 degrees. Corresponding base terms are attenuate, narrowly
cuneate, cuneate, and obtuse (base).
112. What is the difference between rounded and truncate (apex and base)?
A rounded base or apex has convex apical margins, forming a single, smooth arc. A truncate base or apex has
margins that are cut straight across, the angle approximately 180 degrees.
113. What is the difference between mucronate, aristate, and apiculate?
Mucronate – with a stiff straight apical process, length: width = 1:1 – 3:1.
Apiculate – with a flexible apical process, length: width > 3:1.
Aristate – with a stiff apical process, length: width > 3:1.
114. What does emarginate or retuse mean (apex)?
Emarginate – having an apical incision cut 1/16 – 1/8 of the distance to midrib
Retuse – having an apical incision cut up to 1/16 of the distance to the midrib
115. What is the difference between lobed, cleft, parted, and divided?
Lobed – sinuses extending 1/8 – 1/4 of the distance to the midrib
Cleft – sinuses extending 1/4 - 1/2 of the distance to the midrib
Parted – sinuses extending ½ to ¾ of the distance to the midrib
Divided – sinuses extending ¾ to almost to the midrib
116. What do pinnatifid and bipinnatifid mean?
Pinnatifid means to be pinnately lobed to divided and bipinnatifid means to be bipinnately lobed to divided
117. Draw the following: (a) simple, sessile, ovate, acute, crenate leaf; (b) simple, petiolate, oblanceolate, serrulate leaf; (c)
pinnately compound, petiolate, stipulate and stipellate leaf with sessile, entire, narrowly elliptic, cuneate, acuminateleaflets;
(d) trifoliolate (ternately compound), petiolate leaf with petiolulate obovate, narrowly cuneate, apically obtuse, mucronate
leaflets; (e) simple, lanceolate, mucronate, sagittate, dentate leaf.
GENERAL TERMINOLOGY: DISPOSITION
118. What is the difference between position and arrangement?
Position refers to the placement of parts relative to other, unlike parts whereas arrangement is the placement of parts
with respect to similar, like parts.
119. What is the difference between abaxial (dorsal) and adaxial (ventral)?
Adaxial corresponds to the upper or inner surface of an organ and abaxial corresponds to the lower or outer surface
of an organ.
120. What is the difference between proximal and distal?
Proximal means near the point of origin or attachment and distal means away from the point of origin or attachment.
121. What does radical mean?
Radical means positioned at the base of the stem.
122. Name the three basic (general) types of arrangement (e.g., for leaves).
The three basic types of arrangement for leaves are alternate, opposite and whorled.
123. What is the difference between alternate and distichous? Between opposite and decussate?
Alternate refers to one leaf or structure per node. Distichous is alternate with points of attachment in two vertical
rows. Opposite describes two leaves or structures per node. Decussate describes opposite leaves or structures at right
angles to the preceding pair.
124. Describe the difference between equitant, imbricate, secund, valvate, and rosulate.
Equitant refers to leaves with overlapping bases. Imbricate is a general term for leaves or other structures
overlapping. Secund refers generally to flowers, inflorescences, or other structures on one side of the axis. Valvate
means the sides are enrolled so that the margins touch. Rosulate means in a rosette, an arrangement in which parts
radiate from a central point at ground level.
125. Define orientation and name three types (character states).
Orientation denotes the angle of a structure relative to a central axis. Three character states of orientation are
appressed, inclined, and descending.
126. What is the difference between transverse posture and longitudinal posture? Give two examples of each.
Transverse posture refers to the placement of the tip (distal end) of an object with respect to a starting plane.
Examples include recurved which means the tip gradually curving outward or downward, and incurved which means
the tip gradually curving inward or upward. Longitudinal posture refers to the placement of the margins of an object
with respect to a starting plane. Examples include conduplicate which means margins longitudinally folded at the
central axis with adjacent sides facing one another, and revolute which means margins or outer portions of sides
rolled outward or downward over the abaxial surface.
127. Distinguish between conduplicate, revolute, sinuate, and undulate.
Conduplicate – longitudinally folded at central axis. Revolute – with margins rolled outward or downward over the
abaxial surface. Involute- with margins rolled inward or upward over the adaxial surface. Sinuate – sinuses shallow
and smooth, wavy in a horizontal plane. Undulate – margins wavy in a vertical plane.
GENERAL TERMINOLOGY: SURFACE, SYMMETRY, TEMPORAL PHENOMENA
128. Surface refers to three features: configuration, epidermal excrescence, and vestiture. How do they differ?
Configuration refers to the gross surface patterns of the epidermal cells other than that caused by venation.
Epidermal excrescence refers to surface patterns caused by secretions or structural outgrowths of the epidermis.
Vestiture denotes trichome cover and type.
129. Define rugose. For what character is this a character state?
Rugose is covered with coarse reticulate lines, usually with raised blisterlike areas between. This is a character state
for configuration.
130. What is the difference between glaucous, scabrous, and viscid? For what character are these character states?
Glaucous- covered with a smooth, usually whitish, waxy coating.
Scabrous- having a rough surface, like that of sandpaper.
Viscid- having a shiny, sticky surface.
The character is epidermal excrescence.
131. What is the difference between hirsute, pubescent, and tomentose? For what character are these character states?
Hirsute- having long, rather stiff trichomes.
Pubescent- with more or less straight, short, soft, somewhat scattered, slender trichomes.
Tomentose- covered with very dense, interwoven trichomes.
The character is vestiture.
132. What do stellate, pilate, and uniseriate refer to? For what character are these character states?
Stellate- star-shaped trichomes having several arms arising from a common base.
Pilate- with a glandular cell atop an elongated basal stalk.
Uniseriate- having a single vertical row of cells.
The character is trichome type.
133. What is the difference between actinomorphic (radial) and zygomorphic (bilateral)? For what character are these
character states?
Actinomorphic - having three or more planes of symmetry
Zygomorphic - with one plane of symmetry.
The character is symmetry.
134. What is the difference between annual, biennial, and perennial? For what character are these character states?
Annual means a plant living one year or less, biennial means living two years, and perennial means living many years.
These are examples of plant duration.
135. What is the difference between caducous and accrescent? For what character are these character states?
Caducous means dropping off very early, compared to the typical, while accrescent means persistent beyond the
typical. These are examples of leaf duration.
136. What is the difference between protandrous and protogynous?
Protandrous means male parts developing first, while protogynous means female parts developing first.