Principles of
Echidna Rehabilitation
For Veterinarians, Veterinary Technicians and Volunteer Wildlife Rehabilitators
Wildcare Australia Inc.
PO Box 2379, Nerang Mail Centre Qld 4211
Telephone: (07) 5527 2444
Facsimile: (07) 5563 0058
Email: enquiries@wildcare.org.au
Website - www.wildcare.org.au
This document is the property of WILDCARE AUSTRALIA INC. and is subject to
copyright. It may not be copied, changed or distributed without the written
consent of the authors or WILDCARE AUSTRALIA INC.
© 2006-2010
For our wildlife “we are both their greatest enemy and their only hope.
These wonderful creatures will not argue their case.
They will not put up a fight.
They will not beg for reprieve.
They will not say goodbye.
They will not cry out.
They will just vanish.
And after they are gone, there will be silence.
And there will be stillness.
And there will be empty places.
And nothing you can say will change this.
Nothing you can do will bring them back.
Their future is entirely in our hands.”
Bradley Trevor Greive.
International Best-Selling Author and Passionate Wildlife Conservationist
Priceless. The Vanishing Beauty of a Fragile Planet.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
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Index
Page
Contributors
Introduction
5
5
SECTION ONE
Natural history and nomenclature
Taxonomy
Habitat (Distribution and home range
Natural diet
Anatomy and Physiology - General notes
Anatomical features – Spines and fur, Weight and size
Longevity, sex and sexual maturity
Skeleton – overall view
The skull
Post cranial skeleton - Shoulder girdle
Appendages – Forelimb
Appendages – Hind limb
Gait and walking tracks
Brain and spinal chord
Senses – vision, hearing, snout, smell
Body temperature and water balance
Digestion – role of snout and tongue
Palate structure and ingestion of prey
Excretion
Reproduction – the annual cycle, courtship and copulation
Male reproductive organs
Female reproductive organs
Egg laying and egg development
Hatching
Lactation and suckling
Milk consistency
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7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14-15
16
17
18
19
20
21-22
23
25
26
27
28-29
29-30
31
32
33
34
35
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SECTION TWO
Haematology
Rescue Techniques
Capture and handling
Assessment Techniques
Assessment Checklist
Sedation techniques
Taking blood samples
Weighing the echidna
Common reasons that echidnas come into care
Trauma injury – Motor vehicle accidents
Damaged snout x-rays
Pain relief and antibiotics
Housing for road trauma patients
Artificial Heating
Dog attack trauma
Housing examples
Other reasons that echidnas come into care
Trauma quick reference chart
Diets – Adults
Common diseases – parasites, viruses, bacteria and fungi
36
37
38
39
40-41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
49
50
51
52
53-54
55
56-58
SECTION THREE
Rehabilitating orphaned echidnas
Special requirements and hygiene
Record keeping
Puggle development chart
Puggle development photographs
Feeding techniques and recipes
Weaning and preparing the juvenile for release
Release procedures
Conclusion
Reference List
Acknowledgements
59
60
60
61-62
63
64-65
66
67
67
68
69
APPENDICES
69
Minimum Housing Standards
Rescue and Examination Sheet
Wombaroo feeding and Growth Chart
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Contributors
Sharon Griffiths
Vicky Carlsson
Karen Scott
All work edited by Dr Jon Hanger BVBiol, BVSc (Hons), PhD
Introduction
Echidnas are the oldest surviving mammal on the planet today, with five sub species of
short-beaked echidnas, as well as their close relatives, the long-beaked echidnas; found
in New Guinea. There are four subspecies of short-beaked echidna found in Australia,
and although slightly different they will all be classed generally as echidnas throughout
the remainder of the text.
The first section of the notes discusses the wild echidna, with its range of anatomical and
physiological variations, lifestyle, senses and general peculiarities! It is essential to
understand and appreciate this unique animal and the way it spends its life, to be a
successful echidna rehabilitator.
The second section covers topics such as differentiating a sick echidna from a healthy
one, undertaking a full examination of the animal, sedation techniques and their
importance, taking blood samples and comparing these to a normal echidna parameters,
typical reasons why echidnas come into care, appropriate pain relief methods and
common diseases and their treatment.
The final section looks at hand rearing orphaned echidnas and the total commitment
needed to ensure a successful release. This section provides detailed puggle
developmental charts, feeding techniques for each stage of development, notes on the
weaning process and final release procedures.
These notes aim to provide the relatively experienced wildlife rehabilitator, veterinary
technician or veterinarian with a reference guide for the treatment and rehabilitation of
echidnas. More comprehensive notes on echidna medicine can be found in the references
at the end of these notes.
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Natural History of the Echidna
Three species of giant monotremes once roamed Australia during the Pleistocene era; the
largest of these species being Zaglossus hacketti, with reliable fossil records collected
from Western Australia. However, monotreme fossils have also been found in Argentina
suggesting that their distribution covered the southern regions of Gondwana, which is
also supported by the existence of the long-beaked echidnas currently found in New
Guinea (Rismiller, 1999). It is now known that the monotremes belong to the oldest order
of mammals, and therefore echidnas and platypus are the oldest surviving mammals on
the planet today (Rismiller, 1999).
Nomenclature
Monotreme
Mono meaning ‘one’ and tremata meaning ‘hole’. This refers to its
single opening cloaca (Rismiller, 1999).
Tachyglossus
Meaning swift tongue (Rismiller, 1999).
aculeatus
Meaning furnished with spines (Jackson, 2003).
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Taxonomy
Class
Mammalia
Order
Monotremata
Family
Tachyglossidae
Genus/Species
Tachyglossus aculeatus
(Short beaked)
(Australia)
Sub-species
T. a. acanthion
Zaglossus bruijnii
Zaglossus attenboroughi Zaglossus bartoni
(Long beaked)
(Long beaked)
(Long beaked)
(Papua New Guinea) (Papua New Guinea) (Papua New Guinea)
T. a. aculeatus
T. a. multiaculaetus
T. a. setosus
T. a. lawesii
Figure 1:
Source:
Shows the species and sub-species of echidna.
(Jackson, 2003).
Table 1:
Source:
Showing the basic details of the 5 subspecies of Tachyglossus aculeatus.
(Augee et al., 2006).
Name
T. a. aculeatus
T. a. lawesii
Distribution
Eastern New South Wales and
Victoria; Southern Queensland
South Australia, especially
Kangaroo Island
New Guinea Lowlands
T. a. setosus
Tasmania
T. a. acanthion
Northern Territory, Northern
Queensland, inland Australia
and Western Australia
T. a. multiaculaetus
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Distinguishing Characters
Spines project out of fur, which
is relatively short.
Many long, thin spines which
project beyond the fur.
Spines are long and stout with
thick brown fur.
Relatively few short spines with
soft thick fur. Spines rarely
protrude through the fur which
is light brown in colour.
Spines are long and stout. Fur
is black, ‘bristle-like’ and sparse
on the back. Fur is also absent
on the ventral surface.
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Habitat
Distribution
Figure 2:
Shows the distribution of
echidnas in the Australia
mainland, Tasmania and
many islands.
Source:
(Triggs, 2004).
Echidnas are found all over Australia including regions of rainforest, dry sclerophyll
forest and arid zones. Their numbers are lower in intensely managed farmland and outer
city suburban zones, and local extinction occurs in heavily urbanized regions (Menkorst
and Knight, 2001). They are able to survive extreme temperatures, with localised
adaptions such as denser fur, in several sub species.
Although echidnas are seldom encountered, they are widespread and their conservation
status is considered to be ‘low risk’ (Menkorst and Knight, 2001).
Home range
Echidnas are solitary except at mating; but not territorial. They have overlapping home
ranges which vary greatly in size and shape between individuals and the regions in
which they are found. For example, research has shown that the mean home range for
an echidna in Southern Queensland is 50 ha compared to 65 ha in the wheat belt area of
Western Australia. Such overlapping and tolerance of other echidnas is often seen, when
suitable hollows and crevices are in high demand, and echidnas are happy to share with
several others of their species (Augee et al., 2006).
In captivity, this tolerance of other echidnas has made housing echidnas in the same
enclosure feasible, presuming that each of them is in a healthy and non-infectious
condition
(Augee et al., 2006).
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Natural Diet
The short-beaked echidna is classed as a myrmecophage (ant and termite specialist);
however, they will also eat larvae of other invertebrates such as the Scarab beetle, as well
as other adult beetles and earthworms. The size of the prey is limited by the gape of the
echidna’s mouth, which is around 5mm. The tongue can dart out and extrude up to
18cm to catch its prey, with the help of its very sticky saliva (Augee et al., 2006).
The ferocity of many ant and termite defense systems is well understood by echidnas,
and they generally choose to prey on the less defensive ants in the colony such as the
larvae, queen ants, pupae and the winged ants. Being opportunistic feeders their diet is
balanced mainly between ants and termites in the same proportions as they are found in
their environment (Augee et al., 2006).
To find its food the echidna is extremely reliant upon its snout. It will forage through the
leaf litter poking its snout into rotting logs and other potential food sites, until it can
detect either the smell or the electrical impulse of its potential prey. It will use its
powerful forepaws to rip open logs to reach its prey, or may simply lie on top of a nonaggressive ant mount, and wait until the ants race over its awaiting tongue; whereby the
tongue is quickly withdrawn into its mouth (Augee et al., 2006).
Figure3:
The echidna finds its food through the
many receptors on its snout, and then
uses its tongue to gather the crawling
insects.
Source:
(Rismiller, 1999)
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Echidna Anatomy and Physiology
Echidnas are very different in many ways to other mammals, exhibiting both reptilian
and advanced mammalian characters (Walton and Richardson, 1989). They have been
tagged as ‘primitive animals’, because they have maintained many of their ancestral
characteristics (Plesiomorphies). These characteristics in no way hinder their function or
adaption, in fact they have helped the species to survive (Augee et al., 2006). The
following table outlines these Plesiomorphies and Apomorphies (derived characteristics
found only in monotreme mammals).
Table 2:
Detailing the various characteristics found in echidnas and their
revolutionary path.
Source:
(Augee et al., 2006).
Apomorphies (Derived)
Stocky, neck less body
Short, stout limbs held horizontally from the
body
Snout formed by elongated nasal bone and
mandibles
Snout covered with skin rich in
mechanoreceptors
Electro-receptors in snout
Limited development of external pinna (ear)
Spur on hind legs
Hind feet rotation outward
Replacement of teeth with keratinized pads
Plesiomorphies (Ancestral)
Oviparity (egg-laying)
Post temporal opening
Large septo-maxilla (a wedge-shaped
bone in the snout)
Interclavicle and precoracoid in
shoulder girdle
These following adaptations have helped in their long term survival of bush fires,
flooding, cold winters and hot summers because:



Burrowing animals can avoid predators as well as extreme temperatures.
Food sources are all found underground, which are easily located by
electroreception, even in total darkness.
Echidnas are able to tolerate acute asphyxia such as airway blockage or chronic
asphyxia such as high carbon dioxide levels and low oxygen levels (Augee et al.,
2006).
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Anatomical Features of the Echidna
Spines and fur
The echidna’s spines cover its head, back and tail with only a covering of fur on its
ventral surface. The spines are generally straw-coloured with black tips, and are both
strong and sharp; the purpose of these spines being purely for defense. When
threatened, an echidna will dig down vertically onto the soil with its spade-like paws,
until only its spiny covered back protrudes (Menkorst and Knight, 2001).
The echidna’s fur ranges in colour from black to straw with thickness varying greatly
depending on geographical location. For example in north and central Australia its fur is
both short and very sparse, whereas in Tasmania its fur is so long and thick that the
spines are almost entirely obscured. Underneath the fur and spines the echidna’s skin is
very dark brown to black in colour (Menkorst and Knight, 2001).
Figure 4:
Source:
Compares the density of fur in Australian sub-species.
(Menkorst and Knight, 2001).
Weight and size
Short-beaked adult echidnas can weigh anywhere between 2 to 7kgs, with their head to
tail measurement varying between 230 – 350mm, from tip of snout to anus. Their tail
length measures between 85-95mm from anus to the tail’s distal tip, and their snout is
around 55mm long (Menkorst and Knight, 2001).
However, neither the size nor weight of an echidna is a useful indicator of age, maturity
or gender. Some 12 to 18 month old echidnas can actually weigh less than they did when
they were weaned off their mother, if they have had difficulty in learning to forage for
themselves. Sexually mature males can also drop considerable amounts of weight after
mating, due to the extra energy used up when following the females (Rismiller, 1999).
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Longevity
Echidnas have been recorded as living up to 49 years in captivity, with Philadelphia Zoo,
USA holding the record. In the wild, a free-ranging echidna was observed over a period of
45 years, with this longevity of life span thought to be a result of their generally slow
lifestyle (Augee et al., 2006).
Unless an echidna has been observed since birth, it is very difficult to age an echidna.
One such measure is the sheath covered spur on the inside ankle of both male and
female juveniles. This sheath covered spur is evident from the puggle stage of
development, and the sheath is shed as a general rule within the first 4 years of an
echidna’s life. However, both male and female echidnas may retain one or both spurs,
which unlike the platypus are inactive and not used for defense (Rismiller, 1999).
Other helpful hints on aging echidnas are based upon: the thickness of their paw pads,
skin condition on their feet, wear on the front claws and grey tinged hairs on their head.
Older echidnas are also more cautious around unknown objects or animals, whereas
younger echidnas are more curious (Rismiller, 1999).
Sex and sexual maturity
The sex of an echidna can be precisely determined only during the breeding season,
whereby the mature female echidna will be followed by a ‘train’ of mature male echidnas.
(Augee and Gooden, 1997). However, ultrasonography in a veterinary surgery will identify
gonads, and palpation of the penis in males is possible once the echidna is
anaesthetised. It has also been confirmed that although juvenile female echidnas possess
a spur initially, it is not visible outside the “spur skin pocket” as an adult and may have
been lost altogether. In contrast, the male echidnas spur continues to grow to lengths of
15mm and data suggests that they are invariably present as adults. Therefore, spur
detection is a reliable means of sexing adult echidnas but cannot be positively used in
the case of juveniles (Johnston et al., 2006).
Sexual maturity is likewise an unknown entity. Research undertaken by Dr. Peggy
Rismiller has suggested that female echidnas become sexually active at around 5 years of
age and normally have their first puggle at age 6 or 7. Male age at sexual maturity has
yet to be determined through research (Rismiller, 1999).
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Skeleton – overall
Notes:
1 – Cervical ribs
2 – Shoulder girdle 3 – Sternal ribs,
4 – Epipubic bone 5 – Perforate acetabulum 6 – Post-temporal foramen
7 – Dentary and lower jaw bone
Figure 5:
Source:
Shows the basic overall drawing of an Echidna skeleton.
(Augee and Gooden, 1997)
Figure 6:
Shows an entire body x-ray
of an Echidna.
Source:
The Australian Wildlife
Hospital
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Skull
Figure 7:
Diagrams showing the ventral,
dorsal and lateral views of the
Echidna skull.
Source:
(Walton and Richardson, 1989)
Code
A
Bs
D
E
F
Fm
=
=
=
=
=
=
Fo
Fp
Gf
Mb
=
=
=
=
Mx
N
Oc
=
=
=
Os
=
Pmx
Tm
=
=
Zp
=
Alisphenoid
Basisphenoid
Dentary
Ectopterygoid
Frontal
Foramen
magnum
Foramen ovale
False palate
Glenoid fossa
Manubrium of
malleus
Maxilla
Nasal
Occipital
condyle
Ossification in
sphenoparietal
membrane
Premaxilla
Tympanic
membrane
Zygomatic
process of
maxilla
The echidna skull fuses early in development which leaves very few observable suture
lines. The skull is bird-like with a large domed cranium which houses a relatively large
brain. The floor of the cranial compartment is made of a cribiform plate which is
perforated along its length, to allow the many olfactory nerves to pass through from the
olfactory senses in the epithelium of the snout, to the olfactory bulb of the brain (Augee
et al., 2006).
The long thin tubular snout is formed from extensions of the premaxillary,
septomaxillary and maxillary bones. The snout is completely lacking in dentition, but is
perforated by many small holes which house the many branches of the trigeminal nerve.
The nasal cavity opens at the nostrils which are dorsally located, at the anterior end of
the snout (Augee et al., 2006).
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The dorsal and lateral sides of the skull roof show scars, where the origin of strong straplike muscles extend to the shoulder insertion point of the echidna. These powerful
muscles cover the neck region; obscuring its presence. The zygomatic arches are very
thin because they are not needed as muscle attachment points for the chewing action as
in other mammals. The tympanic bone is not covered by a bulla, with only a small bony
overhang to provide protection for the middle ear (Augee et al., 2006).
The lower jaw is formed from two bones called the right and left dentaries, and is the
most basic form of lower jaw in any mammal. These dentaries are thin splinter-like
structures, weakly fused at the symphysis and loosely articulated at the glenoid fossa.
These bones are basic in design because they are not greatly involved in the grinding of
the echidnas food. The opening and closing of the echidna’s mouth is quite unusual, as
the lower jaw does not lower as such, but instead rotates about its long axes, through
the use of longitudinal ligaments, to allow the tongue to dart in and out to catch its prey
(Augee and Gooden, 1997).
Figure 8:
Source:
Shows a photograph of an echidna’s skull, with the dentaries and sensory
nerve foramen.
(Augee et al., 2006)
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Postcranial Skeleton
The echidna possesses 7 cervical vertebrae as in most mammals. The first two are the
atlas and axis as in other mammals; however the similarity ends here. The remaining 5
cervical vertebrae are fused to ribs as seen in reptiles (Walton and Richardson, 1989).
The remaining vertebrae are: 16 thoracic, 3 lumbar, 3 sacral and 12 caudal. There is no
clear difference between the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, as all their spinous
processes point caudally (Augee et al., 2006).
The echidna’s ribs are similar in structure to that of birds, being heavily ossified, with
broad, overlapping sternal ribs attaching directly to the sternum without cartilage. The
ribs are also unusual in the fact that they do not possess a head and tubercle as in other
mammals, but instead the rib attaches directly to the side of the vertebrae (Augee et al.,
2006).
Appendages (Forelimbs)
Figure 9:
Shows the ancient nature of
the echidna’s pectoral
shoulder girdle.
Source:
(Augee and Gooden, 1997).
Notes:
1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
6:
7:
Clavicle
Epicoracoid
Coracoid
Presternum
Interclavicle
(Precoracoid)
Glenoid Fossa
Scapula
The shoulder girdle closely resembles that of a crocodile or other large reptile, as it
possesses two clavicles, two scapulae (with acromian processes at the anterior borders),
two coracoids, two epicoracoids and a medium T-shaped interclavicle; the latter not
being found in any other mammal (Walton and Richardson, 1989). This structure
provides rigidity and stability with a wide horizontally oriented humerus sitting deeply
into the glenoid fossa. The distal end of the humerus increases in width, which provides
an ample muscle attachment surface for greater digging and climbing power (Augee et
al., 2006).
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Figure 10:
Source:
Shows the forelimb structure of the echidna with its horizontally held
humerus and wide digits.
(Rismiller, 1999).
The humerus is held at right angles to the body and rotates about its axis during
locomotion. The radius and ulna articulate with a condyle of the humerus in a ‘quasispiral’ configuration. The manus consists of 5 digits, with wide, spade-like claws which
make plantar contact directly beneath the glenoid (Walton and Richardson, 1989). These
digits form shovel like structures when the echidna digs for its prey (Augee et al., 2006).
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Appendages (Hind limb)
Figure 11:
Showing the unusual pelvic joint
which allows the hind limb to
reach any part of the body, and
the rotated hind leg which
makes the hind feet appear to be
facing backwards.
Source:
(Rismiller, 1999)
The short pelvic girdle is more advanced than the shoulder girdle, with the iliac blade
directed cranially and dorsally. The echidna pelvis has an incomplete symphysis
through the acetabulum, similar to birds. Its epipubic bones are attached to the cranial
margins of the pubis as in most marsupial mammals (Augee et al., 2006).
The femur is short and stout, and projects laterally from the body. Therefore locomotion
is through rotation (approximately 45o) about the proximal-distal axis (head of femur to
patellar groove), along with elevation and depression of the femur (Walton and
Richardson, 1989).
The kneecap has a broad groove for the kneecap and flat femur condyles. The tibia and
fibula are both rotated caudally, which rotates the hind foot outward and backwards.
There are 5 digits on the hind foot but the claws are primarily for grooming not digging.
Digit 1 is small, whereas the digits 2-5 are longer and stronger. A spur is present on the
echidna’s ankles, but these spurs are not connected to a venom gland (Augee et al.,
2006).
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Gait
The echidna’s gait is best described as a slow, rolling walk, with the two legs on one side
of the body moving in unison, followed by the two legs on the other side of the body
(Triggs, 2004).
Figure 12:
Source:
Shows the front and hind feet of the echidna.
(Triggs, 2004)
Figure 13:
Shows the walking track
pattern of the echidna.
Source:
(Triggs, 2004)
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Brain and spinal chord
Figure 14:
Shows the left view of
an echidna brain.
Source:
(Augee et al., 2006)
Notes:
Alpha and beta sulci.
A = Auditory
M = Motor
S = Sensory
V = Visual
The size of the echidna brain is about the same size as a domestic cat, with 36% of the
neocortex buried in the multi-folded convolutions, allowing a greater amount of cortex to
be fitted into the skull area. The position of the visual, sensory, and auditory areas of
the echidnas brain are like no other mammal. Almost half of the sensory area of the
brain is allocated to the snout and tongue. The trigeminal nerve and its related nuclei in
the brain are also greatly exaggerated. It is therefore no wonder that the olfactory bulb,
and the paleocortex (older portion of the cerebral cortex); both related to the sense of
smell, are also greatly enlarged (Augee et al., 2006).
Another unusual feature of the echidna’s brain is the extent of the pre-frontal cortex,
(known in humans as the silent area due to its lack of motor response). The echidna’s
pre-frontal cortex takes up 50% of the cerebral cortex. Although there is no clear reason
for its increased size, it has once again been linked to olfactory information and
information received from the electroreceptors on the snout, due to the large mass in the
dorso-fronto-medial thalamus which projects to the frontal cortex (Augee et al., 2006).
The echidna’s spinal chord is short and ends at the 7th thoracic vertebrae. This shortness
allows the echidna to roll into a tight defensive ball without over-stretching its spinal
chord in the process. The ‘cauda equina’ is a resilient sheath of nerve roots radiating
from the distal end of the spinal chord. The only other dissimilarity between the echidna
and other mammals in regards to its spine, is that the motor and corticospinal nerve
tract crosses from one side of the brain to the other in the pons (Augee et al., 2006).
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Senses
Vision
The echidna’s eyes are black and bead-like and sit at the base of the snout. They have
both rods and cones (10 – 15%), and therefore are able to see in black and white, and
colour. The optic nerve fibres cross over to the other side of the brain at the optic
chiasma. Eyesight is not an essential sense for echidnas, and blind specimens have been
known to survive (Augee and Gooden, 1997).
Hearing
Spines cover the external parts of the echidna’s ears with much of their structure being
similar to other mammals. However, the echidna’s ‘oval window’ is not oval but round;
similar to birds and reptiles, and its cochlea has a banana shaped curve instead of a coil
as in other mammals. The chain of bones in the middle ear are firmly locked to the skull
bone, and therefore whenever the snout is tapped on the ground vibrations travel directly
back to the cochlea. The echidnas cochlear has adapted to hear frequencies of 5 KHz
proficiently, which is exactly the type of frequency emitted by ants and termites (Augee
and Gooden, 1997).
Taste
A sense of taste is gained through two slits forming a ‘V’. These slits are located on the
dorsal surface of the caudal end of dental pad of the tongue, and lead down to an area of
taste buds. Further taste buds are located laterally and caudally to the dental pad, which
are perfectly located, as this is the area where the prey is crushed (Walton and
Richardson, 1989).
The snout
The snout is an extremely important sensory feature for the echidna.
The snout is used not only for odour detection but also temperature and touch, through
the use of sensitive receptors. The electroreceptors are similar to those possessed by the
platypus, but found in no other terrestrial animal. They are able to detect small electrical
currents which are transmitted to the brain through the trigeminal nerves, and are
thought to be used to hunt for food (Augee and Gooden, 1997).
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Figure 15:
Source:
Shows the echidna’s snout and related sensory areas.
(Augee and Gooden, 1997).
The echidna’s sense of smell is extremely important and used for many of its daily
habits. It is used by males to detect females in the mating season, used to detect the
odour given off by termites and ants, and also used by the newly hatched puggle to
detect the mother’s areola region prior to feeding (Augee and Gooden, 1997). The
following figure shows the nasal passage and its complex labyrinth of bone, supporting a
large area of epithelium, rich in odour receptors.
Figure 16:
Shows the nasal
passages within the
echidna’s skull
Source:
(Augee and
Gooden, 1997)
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 22 of 69
Body Temperature
Along with the platypus, echidnas have the lowest body temperature of any mammal.
Their normal temperature is 33oc, and normally never goes above 34 oc. Voluntary
(striated) muscle normally maintains their body temperature above 30 oc, but it can drop
as low as 20 oc if very inactive (Augee and Gooden, 1997). Echidnas also use insulated
microclimates such as those found in hollow logs and burrows as well as the external
temperature through basking, to control their body temperature.
In extreme cold, echidnas will hibernate from as early as February until August. During
this period they lose around 3% of their body fat every month. Mature echidnas will stop
hibernating in August even though it may still be winter, in order to mate, whereas
immature echidnas may extend their hibernation for several more weeks until the
external temperature increases (Augee and Gooden, 1997).
Echidnas have a low metabolic rate compared to other mammals. It takes a third less
oxygen to keep one gram of echidna tissue alive compared to either dog, cow or man,
which also relates to the need for 2/3rd’s less food (energy) intake. This low metabolic
rate may be due to its reliance on termites and ants, and its burrowing activity (Augee
and Gooden, 1997).
The greatest problem facing echidnas in most parts of the Australia is heat. A body
temperature greater than 34oc will kill an echidna. Echidnas possess no sweat
glands and do not pant. Blood flow to the skin helps to cool the echidna, but echidnas
will avoid excessive heat by burrowing, seeking shaded areas or simply reverting to dusk
and dawn activity patterns. Echidnas are able to swim and have been observed doing so
during excessive heat (Augee and Gooden, 1997).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
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Water Balance
The snout plays a key role in conserving water in a process called ‘countercurrent heat
exchange’. Inhaled air makes contact with moist tissue in the bony labyrinth, and is
warmed before meeting the lungs. Exhaled air is cooled as it passes down the snout, and
moisture is left behind on the inside of the snout for the next inhalation (Augee and
Gooden, 1997).
Urine is one means of water loss, with the echidna kidney function and structure being
similar to other mammals, except that they do not possess Loops of Henle, but do
possess dwarf sized nephrons. Faeces and some evaporation from the skin are the two
other examples of water loss experienced by the echidna. The following table details a
3kg echidna’s water loss at air temperatures of 25oc.
Table 3:
Source:
Shows water loss from the echidna’s body on a daily basis
(Augee and Gooden, 1997).
Water loss area
Respiratory tract and skin
Urine
Faeces
Grams of water lost per day
Total
51 g
60 g
9g
120 g
Moisture is gained primarily through the echidna’s diet of termites. Termites contain
77% water, and along with the release of water through the metabolism of the protein
and fat in the termite diet, the echidna needs only eat around 150g of termites per day to
make up the water loss of 120g as seen in table 3. Echidnas will drink water and also
take up droplets of dew found in desert environments; similar to other desert living
animals (Augee and Gooden, 1997).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
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Digestion
The role of the snout
As previously mentioned the snout is used to search for prey. It is a particularly well
adapted instrument, with its wedged shape, able to pry into holes as well as make its
own holes into termite and ant nests. It can also be used to crush prey that are too big to
fit into the echidna’s small mouth.
The tongue
The tongue of the echidna is the main tool used to pass food into the mouth, and is shot
out of the mouth at a rate of up to 100 times per minute. It is oval shaped in cross
section and can reach up to 18cm in length, fully extended. It has two distinct regions;
an extendible round rostral region and a fixed caudal region. The anterior region is very
flexible and can bend into a ‘u’ shape at its tip. The tongue extension is achieved through
two bundles of longitudinal muscles at the back of the tongue surrounded by circular
muscles.
Figure 17:
Source:
Shows the cross section of an
echidnas tongue.
(Augee and Gooden, 1997)
Figure 18:
Source:
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Shows an anesthetized
echidna with its tongue
extended.
The Australian Wildlife
Hospital
Page 25 of 69
Figure 19:
Shows the grinding
apparatus of the
tongue and ridged
palate.
Source:
(Augee et al., 2006)
Ingestion of prey
Unlike the general hinge joint associated with the mandible of most mammals, the
echidna’s two long thin mandibles rotate about their axis and swing the mouth
outwards. This action opens the mouth only enough to release and withdraw the sticky
tongue (Augee et al., 2006).
The sublingual salivary glands empty their treacle-like secretions onto the tongue
creating a very sticky surface, which the ants and termites adhere to easily. Once the
ants are inside the mouth they are crushed between two sets of keratinised spines; one
located on the palate and the other located on the dental pad, at the base of the tongue.
The feeding regime is very efficient, with an echidna being able to eat up to 200g of
termites/ants every 10 minutes (Augee et al., 2006).
The echidna’s gastric lining consists of cornified stratified squamous epithelium, which
further breaks down the exoskeletons of the insects mechanically. Digestion occurs in
the small intestine with the caecum being greatly reduced and unused. The intestine is
long, to make up for the lack of peptide digestion. The intestinal mucosa excretes the
enzymes maltase and isomaltase, to breakdown maltose and isomaltose sugars, and
trehalase to breakdown trehalose; the primary sugars found in insects (Booth, 1999).
The digestive process takes quite some time, with 200g of termites taking two days or
more to clear (Walton and Richardson, 1989).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 26 of 69
Excretion
Figure 20:
Source:
Shows typical echidna scats.
(Triggs, 2004).
Echidna scats are long cylinders up to 2cm in diameter. They contain small particles of
insects, and are often covered by a thin layer of mucous. The scat’s colour varies
depending on the soil type found in the echidna’s home range; as dirt is also ingested
with their uptake of insects. The scats have a strong earthy smell when fresh, but very
little smell when dry (Triggs, 2004).
As previously stated, the echidna’s kidneys resemble other mammals in their structure
apart from a few minor changes. Therefore, echidnas are ‘ureolitic’, with their end
product of protein catabolism being urea, and the end product of purine metabolism
being uric acid. The echidna is able to produce hypertonic urine, a useful mechanism in
dry arid home ranges, with urine concentrations reaching up to 2,300 m Osmkg -1
(Walton and Richardson, 1989).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 27 of 69
Reproduction
The reproduction life cycle of the female echidna can be seen in Figure 21. Hibernation is
a common practise in colder states but will not be as important for echidnas in northern
parts of Queensland.
Figure 21:
Source:
Shows the annual cycle of a female echidna with her young.
(Augee et al., 2006)
Courtship
The majority of the year is spent alone, in the echidna world. However, when a female is
coming into season, usually between July and September, ‘trains’ of echidnas may be
seen foraging around together from anywhere between 7 to 37 days. The echidna at the
front of the train is always a female, and she may be followed by up to 10 males
(Rismiller, 1999). The male who endures the courtship period, and remains closest to
the female, may be the lucky one and have a chance to breed, when the female is
receptive. However, it has been observed that males may also head butt each other in an
attempt to be the chosen mate. The males are lured to the normally solitary female by a
pheromone released as a glossy secretion found in her hibernaculum (Augee et al.,
2006).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 28 of 69
Copulation
The female echidna has been observed lying flat on her abdomen whilst the ‘chosen’ male
digs a trench alongside her body. He is then able to lie alongside the female and get his
tail under her tail, so that their cloacas are touching. His penis, normally around 7 cm
long, is able to enter her cloaca and copulation can last from between 30 to 180 minutes,
after which time they separate. The female will go back to her solitary life (Rismiller,
1999), and generally mates only once in a season. However, if she loses her first young,
she can conceive a second time in the same season. In the meantime, the successful
male may either go back to his solitary life, or rejoin further courtship chains. Females
are thought to mate every second year, although this varies considerably between
individuals (Augee et al., 2006).
Male reproductive organs
Figure 22:
Shows the engorged penis of a
male echidna, highlighting the
two halves, each possessing two
bulb-like knobs.
Source:
(Augee and Gooden, 1997)
.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 29 of 69
Figure 23:
Shows the male reproductive
tract of an echidna.
Source:
(Augee et al., 2006).
The male echidnas’ testes are ovoid in shape and suspended within the abdominal
cavity; caudal to the kidneys. Sperm is ejaculated from the terminal epidydimis through
a short vas deferens to the urogenital sinus. Sperm travels down this sinus and out via
the urethra of the penis. Note that urine does not pass down this same urethra; but
instead passes through the cloaca. Male echidnas do not have seminal vesicles or
prostrate glands (Augee et al., 2006).
The testes grow rapidly in size around early April; during the period of spermatogenesis
and reach their maximum weight in August (8g of testes/kg of echidna body weight). By
the end of September, the testis will have shrunken back to bean-sized organs (Augee et
al., 2006).
Sperm of the echidna is quite unique and both the sperm and means of maturation
resemble that of birds, rather than other mammals.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 30 of 69
Female reproductive organs
Figure 24:
Shows the female echidna’s
reproductive tract.
Source:
(Augee et al., 2006).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 31 of 69
Egg laying
Figure 25:
Source:
Shows the developmental stages of the echidna egg. The shaded
area represents the egg inside the mother’s reproductive tract, and
the unshaded area shows the development of the egg, whilst in her
pouch.
(Tyndale-Biscoe, 1975).
Figure 26:
Shows the enlarged allantois during the
pouch incubation period of the egg.
Source:
(Tyndale-Biscoe, 1975)
Notes:
Al
=
YS
=
Allantois
Yolk sac
The oviduct is the place of both fertilisation and the initial layer of the egg shell. Further
secretions are added to the egg within the uterus until a cream-coloured, leathery shell
has formed. The egg remains in the female reproductive tract for another 17 -21 days.
The egg is about the size of a grape (13 – 17mm), oval in shape and weighs between 1.5 –
2 grams. Once the egg has been laid, it remains in the females pouch for a further 10
days. The temporary pouch is constructed through the thickening of the abdominal
muscles and swelling of the mammary glands. During this period it is believed that the
female echidna starts to construct her nursery burrow, which normally consists of a
metre long tunnel with an enlarged area at the end. Further tunnels of a shorter nature
may also connect to the final burrow, and all kinds of bedding materials may be
incorporated into the nursery area. Dams may also re-use burrows from previous
pregnancies (Augee and Gooden, 1997).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 32 of 69
Hatching
Figure 27:
Shows a new puggle hatching
from the egg.
Source:
(Rismiller, 1999).
The 0.3 – 0.4g puggle hatches from the egg by using its egg tooth and caruncle (hard
pointed bump on the puggle’s snout), and uses its digits and claws to pull its way along
the dam’s hair into the pouch area (Augee et al., 2006).
Figure 28:
Shows the newly hatched puggle
with its egg tooth and
translucent skin. Ingested milk
is clearly visible through the
skin.
Source:
(Walton and Richardson, 1989).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 33 of 69
Lactation
It is important to consider the time of year for rehabilitating female echidnas,
because they may be tending young either in their pouch or in a burrow. Therefore,
it is essential that they be returned to their place of rescue as quickly as possible.
Figure 29:
Source:
Shows the shaven abdomen of a lactating female echidna. The
swollen mammary glands create the pouch and the milk patch,
called the “areola” is clearly visible.
(Augee and Gooden, 1997).
The female echidna does not possess nipples to feed her young. Instead she has milk
patches called ‘areola’ within her pouch, whereby up to 150 pores secrete the milk onto
specialized hair follicles. The Puggle finds the areola via scent, and then proceeds to suck
up the milk at a rapid rate, whilst encouraging milk letdown through ‘nuzzling’ (Augee et
al., 2006). A Puggle is able to increase its weight by 20% in just a few hours of feeding,
which is useful, because female echidnas may not resuckle their young for up to 10
days. On average the Puggle will gain 0.4g in weight for every milliliter of milk consumed.
Once the Puggle starts to grow spikes (around 50 days and/or 200g), it will be removed
from the pouch and left in the burrow whilst the mother forages for several days on end
(Walton and Richardson, 1989). However, the mother continues to suckle her young
when she returns to the burrow every 4-6 days, until the Puggle is around 200 days of
age and weighs approximately 800 – 1300 g.
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© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 34 of 69
The consistency of the milk changes as the young echidna grows. Table 4 indicates the
general composition during the two main stages of lactation.
Table 4:
Source:
Young hatchling
milk
~12% solids
Fat
Protein
Carbohydrates and
minerals
Highlights the change in milk composition produced by the female
over the lactation period.
(Walton and Richardson, 1989).
Composition of
solids
1.25%
7.85%
2.85%
(Inc 8.3μml of iron)
Mature juvenile
milk composition
~48.9% solids
Fat
Protein
Carbohydrates and
minerals
Composition of
solids
31%
12.4%
2.8%
(Inc 33μml of iron
per ml)
General notes on echidna milk




Echidna milk contains very little free lactose, and therefore the main
carbohydrates are fucosyllactose and sialyllactose.
Mature milk consists of the following fatty acids: oleic acids (61%), palmitic (16%),
palmitoleic (6%), linoleic (5%) and stearic (4%), with very little in the way of
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
The whey of the milk contains large amounts of iron-binding protein (transferrin),
which is derived from the blood serum of the mother along with albumin, immune
γ-globulin and other milk proteins. The pink-reddish colour of the whey, is due to
the presence of the transferrin (Walton and Richardson, 1989).
Weaning preparation time has shown the milk to contain the greatest amount of
protein, probably needed to satisfy the growing keratin needs of the juvenile’s
spines and fur, prior to emergence from the burrow (Augee et al., 2006).
Weaning
When the juvenile is around 200 days of age and weighing between 800 – 1300g, the
mother will return to the burrow, dig the young out of the nesting area, and then emerge
from the burrow with her young echidna. She will feed it one last time, and simply walk
away leaving the burrow entrance open. She will not return to the burrow again, hence
avoiding any further contact with her young (Augee et al., 2006).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 35 of 69
Haematology
Table 5:
Source:
Shows the normal haematological and serum biochemistry of echidnas.
(Booth, 1999).
Analyte
PCV (L/L)
RBC (x 1012/L)
Hb (g/L)
MCV (fL)
MCH (pg)
MCHC (g/L)
WBC (x 109/L)
Neutrophils (x 109/L)
Lymphocytes (x 109/L)
Monocytes (x 109/L)
Eosinophils (x 109/L)
Basophils (x 109/L)
Platelets (x 109/L)
Sodium mmol/L
Potassium mmol/L
Chloride mmol/L
Bicarbonate mmol/L
Glucose mmol/L
BUN mmol/L
Creatinine mmol/L
Calcium mmol/L
Phosphorous mmol/L
Cholesterol mmol/L
Total protein g/L
Albumin g/L
Globulin g/L
Total Bilirubin μmol/L
Alanine Aminotransferase
U/L
Alkaline Phosphatase U/L
Lactate Dehydrogenase U/L
Aspartate Aminotransferase
U/L
Creatine Phosphokinase U/L
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Short-beaked
echidna (30
samples)
0.40±0.06
6.25 ± 0.85
145 ± 26
65 ± 5
23.8 ± 0.4
360 ± 50
11.95 ± 5.52
6.60 ± 3.86
5.11 ± 2.51
0.3 ± 0.27
0.08 ± 0.17
0
414 ± 125
138.7 ± 6.06
3.11 ± 0.58
94.66 ± 4.8
31.57 ± 6.16
4.83 ± 1.48
10.55 ± 2.97
0.07 ± 0.04
2.52 ± 0.35
1.76 ± 0.44
4.54
76.19 ± 11.51
37.94 ± 8.37
38.23 ± 5.22
5.88 ± 2.85
100 ± 32.93
161.17 ± 53.21
239.75 ± 136.28
321.21 ± 135.71
79.19 ± 37.76
Page 36 of 69
Rescue Techniques
If an injured or sick echidna is reported, they should be taken to a wildlife veterinarian
immediately for a full and thorough assessment.
Echidnas are very spiky and hence handling can be tricky. However, if they are handled
in a compassionate and gentle manner from the start, chances are they will be quiet,
easy echidnas to rehabilitate.
Echidnas will often avoid capture by digging themselves into the soil or other tight spots.
It is very difficult to remove them without digging them out physically. Digging should
be far enough from the animal to avoid further damage to limbs, snout or other
body parts. Do not use a shovel to dig the echidna out – use your hands. To remove the
echidna it is essential that the hole dug allows the rescuer access to the underbelly
region of the echidna. To remove the echidna, place a hand just behind the forelimbs on
the underbelly region. The echidna will tend to curl around the hand, creating a secure
hold (Booth, 1999). Echidnas can also be picked up when rolled into a ball with thick
leather gloves to protect the hands, however, most people prefer not to wear gloves, as
they lose sensitivity to the echidnas movements (Jackson, 2003).
A different method of handling can be used if the echidna is on hard ground, which
makes it difficult to dig either side of the echidna to access its underbelly. One hind leg
can be grabbed by the ankle and the echidna gently lifted off the ground until the second
leg can be held. If the echidna’s hind leg is not accessible, touching the snout generally
causes the hind limb to shoot out behind the echidna’s body momentarily, whereby it
can be grabbed as in the previous fashion (Jackson, 2003).
Do not use this method
of handling if the echidna is suspected of being injured.
For those that are not experienced with handling echidnas, the use of a pair good quality
leather gloves are strongly recommended. Alternatively, use a thick towel (folded over)
and wrap this around the echidna to pick it up. The towel method though makes it
difficult to assess the back of the echidna.
Keep in mind at all times that echidnas are escape artists and climb extremely well.
Therefore, transportation must be in containers such as tall plastic bins with secure lids
(holes must be drilled into the lid for ventilation). Layers of towels should be placed on
the base and in hot weather, covered ice packs may also be placed alongside the
container to keep the temperature below 25oc to avoid overheating (Booth, 1999).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 37 of 69
Figure 30 and 31 Above: Preferred method for handling echidnas.
Source: Karen Scott
Figure 32:
Source:
Shows the preferred methods of
handling echidnas
(Jackson, 2003)
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Figure 33:
Source:
Shows the agility of
echidnas.
Australia Zoo
Wildlife Hospital
Photo Gallery
Page 38 of 69
Assessment Techniques
90% of missed diagnoses are from not LOOKING rather
than from not KNOWING
In other words, you will miss or overlook more diagnoses because you have failed to
observe your echidna fully and conduct a thorough, systematic examination, rather than
because you are not trained. This applies to all wildlife, not just echidnas. Get into a set
routine of working through an examination on every sick or injured animal that comes
into your care. As unpleasant as it sounds, collecting dead bodies and performing
examinations on them is a great way to learn, with the added benefit that you cannot
hurt them!
A thorough assessment of every echidna must be done as soon as it comes into care delays or the unwillingness to stress the echidna can cost it its life. A copy of an
assessment sheet may be found in the appendices. Some very sick animals will show
no outward signs of illness at all. In most cases a complete and thorough physical
examination, including blood tests, x-rays, ultrasound and swabs will need to be
performed before an accurate diagnosis can be given. These will all need to be done by a
competent wildlife veterinarian and due to the secretive nature of the echidna the animal
must be anaesthetised for the examination. These tests can take up to several hours to
conduct.
In some cases it may be necessary to administer first aid, such as fluid therapy, clearing
an obstructed airway, controlling bleeding etc before completing your examination. If you
have the echidna anaesthetised, this is easier, more humane for the echidna, and allows
easy euthanasia if the disease or injuries are severe. Euthanasia of a sick or injured
animal should only be undertaken when the animal is anaesthetised, except under
exceptional circumstances, such as if you are in the field and do not have access to
anaesthesia.
Figure 34:
Indicates how well an echidna can curl
into a tight ball making assessment
difficult without an anesthetic.
Source: Karen Scott
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 39 of 69
Assessment Check-List
Clinical Signs
Demeanour
Healthy / Normal





Bright
Alert
Responds to stimuli (eg being
touched)
Conscious
Rolls into a tight ball when
handled
Sick / Injured






Mobility/Limbs


Can climb well with rolling gait
Attempts to dig into substrate
when approached/disturbed




Quiet / depressed
Distressed
Unconscious
Does not or is slow to react to
stimuli
Does not roll into a tight ball
when handled
(Indicative of shock, dehydration,
injury)
Does not attempt to dig into
substrate when disturbed
Abnormalities in movements (eg
only using front legs, dragging a
limb, falling over, swaying).
Head tilted to one side (trauma)
Paralysis
(Indicative of trauma related injury)
 Sides of body concave
 Thin, sparse fur
Body Condition



Good body condition
Rounded body
Spines in good condition
Breathing

Barely discernible (handling may
result in increase respiration
rate)


Easily discernible
Noisy breathing (not bubbly noise)
Head

Symmetrical




Abnormal symmetry
Indentations
Swelling
Crepitation
(Indicative of trauma related injury)
Eyes

Bright and shiny
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010









Dull
Sunken (dehydrated)
Closed (pain/dehydrated)
Protrusion (trauma)
Swelling (trauma)
Clear fluid (trauma)
Nystagmus (head injury)
Unequal pupil(s) (trauma)
Unreactive pupil(s) (trauma)
Page 40 of 69
Clinical Signs
Healthy / Normal
Sick / Injured
Snout



Black and shiny
Straight
Clear bubbles from nostrils





Distorted (fracture)
Blood from nostrils (trauma)
Abrasions (trauma)
Swelling (trauma)
Dull/wrinkled (dehydrated)
Spines



Shiny
A few missing spines is normal
Some broken spines are normal



Blood
Missing spines that appear to be
freshly broken
Evidence of saliva
Mouth/Jaw


No discharge
Symmetrical




Misaligned jaw (trauma)
Blood (trauma)
Swelling (trauma)
Crepitation (trauma)
Cloaca



Clean
Free from discharge
Pale pink in colour




Pale in colour (dehydrated/shock)
Diarrhoea
Blood
Lacerations
Ears

No discharge


Blood
Clear fluid
(Indicative of trauma related injury)
Parasites
Faeces



Urine




Over abundance of ticks (in
excess of 20-30 ticks)
Fly blown / Maggots
Coccidiosis in faeces
Normal for faeces to be passed
once to twice a week.
Normal faeces have a very strong
smell


Diarrhoea (infection)
No faecal output (constipation)
Normal for urine to be passed
every 1-3 days

No urination (trauma or
dehydration)
Ticks are normal (echidnas are a
natural host for ticks)
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 41 of 69
Sedation techniques
The anesthetic of choice is Isoflurane® administered by mask, T-piece and Isotec
vaporizer; 5% for induction and 2-3% for maintenance, with an oxygen flow rate of 1-2
litres per minute. An induction box with perspex sides is good for initial induction, but a
mask can be made from a 25mL syringe case.
One word of warning, when placing the snout within the mask, do not allow the feet to
push the snout out of the mask. Hold the mask very firmly against the patient as they
are both stubborn and strong.
‘Alfaxan CD RTU’ (Alfaxalone 10mg/ml) @ 3mg/kg I.M. can also be used for induction,
which is then normally coupled with gaseous Isoflurane®.
Figures 35 and 36:
Source:
Shows inducation and maintenance of anaesthesia using
Isoflurance and mask.
Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital Photo Gallery
Normal vital signs for the echidna:
Body temperature
Heart rate
Respiratory rate
23-32oc
96 ± 13 beats per minute
11 ± 3 breaths per minute
Source:
(Booth, 1999).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 42 of 69
Taking blood samples
Blood samples can be taken from jugular, cephalic or femoral veins, although the easiest
method is to take blood from a blood filled bill sinus, on the dorsal aspect of the beak,
just caudal to the external nares. The echidna must be anaesthetised for this
procedure. A 25 gauge winged infusion needle can be inserted centrally just through the
skin and gentle suction applied to obtain 1-2mls (Booth, 1999).
Figure 37:
Source:
Shows blood sampling using the ‘bill sinus’ technique.
The Australian Wildlife Hospital
Blood samples
Slide 1 = Two neutrophils and one lymphocyte (WG stain)
Slide 2 = Eosinophil (WG stain)
Slide 3 = Monocyte and lymphocyte (WG stain)
Figure 38:
Source:
Shows 3 typical blood samples taken from short-beaked echidnas.
(Clark, 2004).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 43 of 69
Weighing the echidna
Weighing an echidna can be achieved by either placing the animal in a bucket and
hanging the bucket from the scales, or placing the echidna on a flat bed scale. Echidnas
should be weighed regularly whilst in hospital and at least once per week once in a
rehabilitation programme. Puggles must be weighed on scales that show the minimum of
1g increments.
Figure 39:
Source:
Shows an echidna being weighed on a flat bed electronic scale.
The Australian Wildlife Hospital
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 44 of 69
Common Reasons Why Echidnas
Come into Care
From Wildcare Australia’s records of all animals that are rescued annually, only 0.2%
will be echidnas. Echidnas require special rehabilitation permits, if a rehabilitator is
to care for these animals, either as adults or juveniles. The carer must be both
experienced and have the correct facilities to house these animals.
Other , 10%
Road trauma,
45%
Dog attack, 45%
Graph 1:
Source:
Itemises the reasons why echidnas come into care.
Wildcare Australia rescue database.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 45 of 69
Trauma Injury
Motor Vehicle Accidents
Adult Echidnas are often injured due to encounters with motor vehicles. The echidna’s
thick spiny covering can obscure many injuries, and this coupled with the inability
of echidnas to vocalise, means that very often, the seriousness of their injuries is
overlooked.
Common signs of injury
Broken quills, distorted beaks and an inability to move are all common injuries
associated with road trauma. A careful look at the quills will often indicate the area that
has taken the brunt of the impact. Examination without an anaesthetic is near
impossible, due to the secretive nature of echidnas, and their ability to curl into tight
spiky balls. Follow the sedation procedure as previously detailed.
Thoroughly examine each area of the body for any signs of trauma. Clear mucous
bubbling from the snout is normal, however if there is evidence of ‘bloody bubbles’, this
often indicates serious trauma. Radiographs are essential to diagnose fractures within
the body, particularly in the snout. Carefully feel for any ‘crepitus’ of the snout,
indicating a fracture.
Echidnas with unilateral beak fractures can be rehabilitated as long as the snout is not
greatly distorted and the fracture site is not open. However, grossly distorted, compound
or bilateral fractures, with visible bone fragments should be euthanased immediately.
Fractured beaks that are aligned but visible on radiograph can heal well with
confinement and medication. It is essential to remember that the snout is the echidna’s
main method of finding food. Excessive damage tosensory regions on the end of the
snout, as seen in figures 42 and 43, will not allow the echidna to survive in the wild.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 46 of 69
Figure 40:
Source:
Shows the x-ray of a normal
echidna snout (Dorsal
aspect)
The Australian Wildlife
Hospital
Figure 42 and 43:
Source:
Figure 41:
Source:
Shows a unilateral
fracture (Dorsal
aspect)
The Australian
Wildlife Hospital
Show bilateral compound fractures (Dorsal aspect)
The Australian Wildlife Hospital
Fractures to limbs are impossible to externally stabilise due to the echidna’s short
stocky body and incredible strength. Internal surgical correction should be considered if
any limb fractures are to be attempted.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 47 of 69
Pain relief
It can be difficult to monitor pain in echidnas. They do not vocalize, but may lie
laterally or dorsally, often shaking, if pain is severe. Pain relief is vital.
Opioid and non-steroidal drugs are commonly given for 1-5 days. Often after this time
the animal is comfortable.
Table 6: Shows the commonly used drugs to manage pain in echidnas.
Drug
registered
name
Methone
Temgesic
Rimadyl
Metacam
Composition
Dosage
Methadone
0.2 – 0.5mg/kg
hydrochloride
10mg/ml
Buprenorphine 0.01mg/kg
hydrochloride
Carprofen
Day 1
50mg/ml
0.4mg/kg
Meloxicam
5mg/ml
Day 2 -5
0.2mg/kg
Day 1
0.2mg/kg
Day 2 -5
0.1mg/kg
Frequency
Administration
4 to 6 hourly
Intramuscular
8 to 12 hourly
Intramuscular
SID
Subcutaneous
SID
Subcutaneous
SID
Intramuscular or
subcutaneous
SID
Intramuscular or
subcutaneous
Commonly antibiotics are also given, despite no wounds being seen as healing can be
difficult due to the ‘dirty’ nature of animal.
Drug
registered
name
Clavulox
injectable
Composition
Dosage
Frequency
Administration
Clavulanic
acid 35mg/ml
Amoxycillin
140mg/ml
1ml of
suspension
(20kg/BW)
SID for 5 days
Subcutaneous or
intramuscular (into
thigh muscle)
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 48 of 69
Artificial Heat
It has been very well accepted that echidnas do not tolerate high temperatures and their
temperature should be maintained below 25ºC. Regulating their temperature in this way
is believed to also assist with the reduction of pain.
There have been some instances however where a sick or injured echidna has required a
heat source for their recuperation. If an echidna in care is not progressing as well as
expected and/or is not eating, try offering a heat source. This can be done by placing a
heat pack or electric heat pad under the hospital enclosure at one end of the enclosure.
Ensure that the enclosure is large enough however that the echidna can move away from
the heat source if it desires. You should be able to gauge within a few hours whether
the echidna actively seeks the heat source.
Housing for road trauma patients
Hospital cages are defined in the ‘Echidna Minimum Housing Chart’, found in the
appendices section. If pain relief is adequate and temperature is carefully regulated to
below 25°C, then the echidna will be comfortable. If these factors cannot be controlled,
the echidna will constantly try to probe or self traumatise the snout. By adding an ice
pack to the outside of the hospital box, you can often quieten the patient down, and it
will seek out this area. Soft mulch should line the base of each hospital box to a height of
15-20 cm. Change the mulch once to twice per week. If the echidna has open wounds,
replace the mulch with several soft towels or sheets. These will be required to be
changed every 2-3 days or when soiled.
Be conscious of vibrations created by walking too close to the echidna’s hospital box,
particularly when they are unwell. Echidnas sense disturbance / movement and
immediately react by burrowing. Hospital boxes should always be placed in a dark, cool,
quiet ‘low traffic’ area.
Fractured beaks require 2 – 4 weeks to heal, and generally the echidna is confined to a
hospital box for this time. Little movement is preferred for the first week, which is
achievable if pain relief and temperature are well controlled. After this time they may be
observed to burrow and scratch within the mulch.
Once comfortable, a meat mix (refer to recipes included under the diet section of these
notes) should be offered every second night until eating resumes. Release should only
be considered after feeding normally and actively seeking out both native and
supplementary foods. Make sure the echidna is not merely stumbling over the food bowl.
Prior to release termite mounds and hollow logs containing termites should be offered, to
test the strength of the beak. A final radiograph should be taken after this activity to
confirm damage to the fracture site has not occurred.
Most adult echidnas take well to supplementary meat mixes after sometime in care.
Water should be available at all times in a heavy low bowl.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 49 of 69
Figure 44:
Source:
Shows a typical hospital box for an echidna, with deep mulch and water
bowl.
The Australian Wildlife Hospital
Dog Attack
Echidnas that present with wounds are almost certainly the victims of dog attack. There
maybe broken spines visible, but often saliva, dirt and deep wounds are seen. An
anaesthetic is required in order to assess the severity of the wounds, and to administer
fluids if required.
Flush all dirt and debris from the wounds. Antibiotics are required whilst the wounds
are visible, and Clavulox injections are the preferred choice. Again pain relief is of
utmost importance. Non-steroidal drugs maybe adequate, however opioid based drugs
are necessary to control severe pain. Oral medications are normally considered too
difficult to administer to adult echidnas unless they are eating well and it can added into
their food. In juvenile echidnas, oral medications will be well tolerated, if administered
by syringe and cannula into the mouth.
Due to the nature of the injuries, ‘wounded’ echidnas must be kept on fresh towels
within the hospital box. The base towel is often damp with the covering towels being dry
if possible. This set up depends on the external temperature. Towels will need to be
changed every second day or sooner if soiled. A sturdy low water bowl must always be
available. Once wounds heal, mulch can be substituted for the towels, but often at this
time they are ready for release.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 50 of 69
Figure 45 and 46:
Source:
Show typical hospital boxes lined with fresh towels and cooler packs
to maintain the temperature below 25oc.
Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital Photo Gallery.
Figure 47: Large heavy duty plastic tub
120cm x 70cm x 60cm. These make excellent
hospital enclosures for echidnas.
Manufactured by Rapidplas “Poly Creep Box”
Source: Karen Scott
Figure 48: Large plastic tub.
These make an excellent
economical hospital enclosure
for echidnas.
Size – 50cm x 55cm x 80cm.
Available through Bunnings
Warehouse for approximately
$55 each
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 51 of 69
Other reasons that echidnas come into care
The following pictures show other types of injuries that echidnas may sustain.
Figure 49:
Severe dermatitis
Figure 50:
Burnt snout tissue, evident after 2
days in care.
Figure 51:
Burnt spines (bush-fire
Victim.
Figure 52:
Orphaned juvenile.
All photographs sourced from The Australian Wildlife Hospital.
The following pages detail a quick reference guide to typical traumas seen in echidnas,
and how to manage the animal in a veterinary surgery.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 52 of 69
Trauma type
Fractured beak
(simple,
unilateral)
Assessment tools /
techniques
General anaesthetic –
 Isoflurane
 Alfaxan CD RTU
I.M. ( 3mg/kg )
Radiograph essential.
Fractured beak
( compound /
bilateral /
distorted )
Drug administration & Dose rates
Housing Requirements and Outcome.
Methone 0.2-0.5 mg/kg I.M (4 -6
hourly )
Temgesic 0.01mg/kg I.M. (8 -12
hourly )
Rimadyl 0.4mg/kg S.C. SID (initial
dose then 0.2mg/kg SID additional
doses)
Metacam 0.2 mg/kg s/c SID ( initial
dose then 0.1mg/kg SID additional
doses )
Clavulox injection 1ml/20kg BW SID
Hospital box (straight sided large
plastic box – dimensions 690mm x
470mm x 450mm with strong lockable
ventilated lid as per figure 42.
Soft bark substrate, sturdy water bowl
General anaesthetic –
 Isoflurane
 Alfaxan CD RTU
I.M. ( 3mg/kg )
Outcome: if comfortable, prognosis
good.
Do not consider for treatment /
rehabilitation.
Euthanase – intravenous, intrahepatic,
cardiac puncture.
Radiograph essential.
Broken Quills
only
Fractured
Limbs
General anaesthetic –
 Isoflurane
 Alfaxan CD RTU
I.M. ( 3mg/kg )
Radiograph essential.
General anaesthetic –
 Isoflurane
 Alfaxan CD RTU
I.M. ( 3mg/kg )
Radiograph essential.
As above
Hospital box (as above)
Soft bark substrate, sturdy water bowl
Outcome: if comfortable, prognosis
good.
As above
Euthanase unless surgical correction.
Hospital box for surgical cases.
Trauma type
Dog Attack
wounds
Assessment tools / techniques
General anaesthetic –
 Isoflurane
 Alfaxan CD RTU
I.M. ( 3mg/kg )
Drug administration & Dose
rates
As above
Outcome: if comfortable and able to
keep clean, prognosis good.
Radiograph, if suspected limb
injury
Juvenile /
sub adult
Disorientated,
walking around
( <800 gm)
No sign of
trauma
Found digging
around house
General anaesthetic –
 Isoflurane
 Alfaxan CD RTU
I.M. ( 3mg/kg )
Antibiotics and pain relief may
need to be administered if the
juvenile has injuries, as in adult
cases.
Thoroughly check for injury and
illness.
Possibly looking for mother.
Orphaned.
Assess its ability to move,
demeanour and general
awareness.
If rehabilitation is necessary, follow
notes under – Feeding techniques,
puggle development table and release
procedures.
Hospital box / outside pen required
depending on level of development.
Outcome : good prognosis
If no injuries are found and
demeanour is bright and responsive Release immediately to the exact
location from where it was rescued if
possible.
Common to see this situation in
suburbia.
Keep dog / animals confined to allow
echidna to move away.
General anaesthetic optional if
no adverse signs.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Housing Requirements and
Outcome.
Hospital box (as above) but with :
Damp towels - changed every second
day.
Sturdy water bowl
Page 54 of 69
Diet - Adults
Recipes for meat mix
Recipes 1, 2 & 5 are based on one meal for an adult echidna. These recipes offer variety to
captive echidnas and maybe helpful to stimulate eating by stubborn patients. Recipes 3 &
4 are balanced diets depending on time of the year and should make up the bulk of captive
echidna supplementary food.
Ingredients
Instructions
RECIPE 1
50g lean beef mince
2 tbsp Wombaroo Small Carnivore
1 tbsp natural yogurt
1 raw egg
1 tbsp of high protein cereal (Farex®)
RECIPE 2
¼ cup Adult maintenance Eukanuba
dry dog food.
1 tbsp Wombaroo Small Carnivore
RECIPE 3
Summer Diet
December
June
to
RECIPE 4
Winter Diet
July
November
Recipe 5
to
750g Prime grade beef mince
1/3 cup wheat bran
½ cup Wombaroo Small Carnivore
(optional)
102g Glucodin® (glucose powder)
125ml Olive Oil
8g Calcium carbonate
8g Vitamin E Powder (Equine E)
2ml Soluvet® (bird vitamins)
750g Prime grade beef mince
1/3 wheat bran
3 eggs
286g Glucodin® (glucose powder)
56ml Olive oil
8g Calcium carbonate
8g Vitamin E powder (Equine E)
2ml Soluvet® (bird vitamins)
½ Wombaroo Small Carnivore
Wombaroo Echidna milk (made as per
manufacturers directions).
1-2 teaspoons of Farex® (optional)
1-2 teaspoons of Wombaroo Small
Carnivore (optional)
Mix all ingredients together.
Add sufficient water to produce a moist
slurry.
This recipe will make approximately
80g of meat mix, of which juveniles
normally consume 50g per meal.
Soak dry dog food for 4 hours.
Mash them together.
Feed the whole amount to an adult
echidna but only 50g to a juvenile.
Mix all ingredients together.
Take 60g of this meat mix and blend it
with 50ml of water per feed per adult.
Mix all ingredients together.
Take 60g of this meat mix and blend it
with 50ml of water per feed per adult.
Can also be offered to adult echidnas.
May be more readily accepted than
meat mix diet, particularly those with
fractured beaks.
Note: All the recipes can be made en masse, then divided into individual portion sizes
and frozen for future use. Live termites, ants and other small invertebrates can be added
to the defrosted meat mix just prior to feeding.
Common Diseases
Parasites
Coccidiosis
Coccidian parasites of the echidna are:



Eimeria tachyglossi
Eimeria echidnae
Octosporella hystrix
Symptoms in adults - heavy infestations usually only cause mild focal enteritis but can
cause bloody faeces.
Symptoms in sub-adults – extensive villus loss, crypt hyperplasia, inflammation, death.
Diagnosis
Through wet faecal preparation and faecal floatation (Rose, 1999).
Treatments
Baycox (Toltrazuril 25mg/ml) at 10-20mg/kg, given orally for 2 days.
Trimethoprim/sulphadiazine 5mg/kg of the trimethprim component, given I.M. once per
day for 5 days (Booth, 1999).
Sparganosis
The parasites are:
Spirometra erinacei (intermediate host being cats and dogs).
Causes serious pathology in all ages of echidna. Tumour – like masses develop in
subcutaneous tissue, up to 12 cm in size, surrounded by inflammation. Transmission is
thought to be through drinking infected water (Booth, 1999).
Aponomma concolor
This ‘echidna tick’ infests wild and captive animals and in large infestations can cause
anaemia and dermatitis. Only if the burden is very heavy should the echidna be treated
Treatment
Ivermectin 200μg/kg by S.C. into skin of neck or ventral abdomen (Rose, 1999).
Nematodes
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 56 of 69
Echidnas are host to many nematodes that affect the gastrointestinal tract, pulmonary
tissues and subcutaneous tissues including:






Parastrongyloides spp.
Nicollina spp.
Tachynema spp.
Tasmanema spp.
Ophidascaris sp.
Dipetalonema sp. (Rose, 1999).
Haemoprotozoa
An Anaplasma marginale –like organism can affect the red blood cells, along with other
blood protozoans such as Theileria tachyglossi and Babesia tachyglossi (Rose, 1999).
Viruses
Herpes virus
A multisystemic infection that causes hepatitis and death.
Pox virus
Causes severe dermatitis.
Adenovirus
Causes cytomegalic inclusion bodies in the kidney (Booth, 1999).
Bacteria
Salmonella spp.
Some are sub-clinical while others have caused septicaemia and death.
Mycobacterium sp.
Causes generalised chronic infection.
Other fatal diseases recorded have been caused by the following bacteria:





Staphylococcus sp.
Streptococcus spp.
Aeromonas sp.
Proteus sp.
Edwardsiella sp. (Booth, 1999).
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 57 of 69
Fungi
Microsporum gypseum.
Associated with broken spines.
Candida albicans
Cultured from oesophagus and stomach of hand-reared juvenile echidna.
Cryptococcus
Causes pneumonia.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 58 of 69
Rehabilitating Orphaned Echidnas
As with adult echidnas, a rehabilitator must hold a special rehabilitation license issued
by their local Environmental Protection Agency. Although puggles do not require feeding
every 2-3 hours like many other types of orphaned wildlife, tube feeding and other
associated activities needed to raise a puggle are skilled tasks, and only very experienced
carers should consider raising a puggle from a young age.
On the following page is a puggle development sheet. It is designed to be used as a
guideline only, and carers must realise that every animal is different.
Specific requirements
Dry skin
A juvenile echidna’s skin may become dry when in care. Some carers use ‘Sorbelene’
lotion on the skin, however, it is normal for young echidna’s skin to be dry, and as long
as the leaf litter within its housing is kept cool and damp (lightly spray every other day
with water), this alleviates the problem (Jackson, 2003).
Constipation and diarrhoea
Puggles and juvenile echidnas do not have to be stimulated to pass faeces or urine.
However, they can become constipated, and therefore their excretion times should be
monitored and recorded. Constipation can be treated with ‘Microlax’ enemas (Jackson,
2003).
Diarrhoea is often caused by Candida or Salmonella.
Stress
As with all wildlife, stress can kill young echidnas very easily. Consideration should be
given to whether a carer is able to provide a very quiet environment free of domestic pets,
before attempting to hand-raise a puggle (Jackson, 2003).
Hygiene
Hygiene as with all orphaned wildlife is of paramount importance.
guidelines should be followed:






The following
Wash hands thoroughly with antibacterial soap, before and after handling the
echidna.
Ensure all bedding is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected regularly.
Use only pre-boiled water to make up milk formulas.
Clean any spilt milk, urine or faeces from the puggles skin with warm water only,
as soon as possible, and dry thoroughly.
Wash all feeding equipment in warm soapy water, and then sterilise by boiling for
10 minutes or soaking in ‘Milton’ or a similar product. Rinse before use in preboiled water.
Always discard leftover milk - never reheat leftover milk (Jackson, 2003).
Record keeping
As puggles do not come into care very often, it is essential to keep accurate records for
future reference.
The following data should be kept:









Time and date.
Body weight before and after feeding in 1g increments (puggle stage) and then
once weekly when in the outside pen.
General activity and demeanour.
Signs of trauma, injury or sickness.
Amount of food offered.
Amount of food taken.
Medications administered and repeat veterinary visit details.
Developmental stage changes.
Release date and time.
(Jackson, 2003).
On the following page is a puggle development sheet. It is designed to be used as a
guideline only, and carers must realise that every animal is different.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 60 of 69
Age and Weight
3 – 4 weeks
105 – 200g
Normal stage of
development
Artificial housing
Still pouch bound with mother
Pink skin, no spines visible, eyes
shut.
Urination – expected every 3-4
days when animal is picked up.
Defecation – expected every 1-2
weeks.
Faeces – yellow/mustard colour,
toothpaste consistency.
Spines visible under the skin.
Eyes close to opening.
Skin starts to appear bluish.
Small insulated box (plastic sides), no lid.
Sterile pouches and cloths – secured with a
peg.
No external heating – air temp 23 – 28oc.
Regulation of temperature can be obtained
through the use of ice packs wrapped in a
towel and placed in a corner of the esky.
No stimulation needed for defecation or
urination.
As above.
6 weeks
Eyes open.
Fine spines through the skin.
Skin distinct blue colour.
As above.
2 months
Spines 2mm length over entire
body.
Increased activity at each feed.
As above.
3 months.
Ear opening visible.
Starting to climb and explore
burrow.
Place in container (690x470x455mm) with
20cm of dirt base. Bury a 30cm length of
storm water PVC drainage pipe at a 45o
angle, to act as a burrow.
5 weeks
Food
Offer off hand daily for 2-3 days
at ratio of 10% of body weight. If
no success, then tube feed. Tube
feed 5% body weight every 36
hours.
(See ‘Feeding techniques’ in the
following section)
Milk formula is <0.3 Wombaroo
Echidna milk.
Hand feeding every 48 hours.
Start transition process to > 0.3
Wombaroo Echidna milk. (See
separate feeding notes).
Hand feeding every 48 hours at
10% of body weight.
Milk formula >0.3 Wombaroo
Echidna milk.
Handfeeding every 48 – 72
hours at ratio 10% body weight.
Milk formula >0.3 Wombaroo
Echidna milk.
Handfeeding every 48 - 72 hours
at ratio 15% body weight.
Milk formula >0.3 Wombaroo
Echidna milk.
Exercise prior to feeding by
allowing roaming in a confined
room, on a non-slip surface.
Offer warm water on hand after
each feed.
Age and Weight
5 months
6 months
Normal stage of
development
Active, starting to stand and
walk.
As above.
Artificial housing
Outside pen with access to hollows and leaf
litter. See figures 53-56, for examples of the
appropriate housing.
Food
Milk formula >0.3 Wombaroo
Echidna milk offered in a bowl
sprinkled with Wombaroo Small
Carnivore Mix. Increase the
amount of Wombaroo Small
Carnivore Mix over the next 4
weeks until it has the
consistency of a thick paste.
Water bowl present in pen.
Must weigh juvenile echidna’s
minimum fortnightly from this
point forward.
Feed as often as the juvenile is
active. Some juveniles may eat
daily and some may eat every 23days. Cooler weather will mean
less frequent feedings.
As above.
Feed meat mix +/- milk formula
>0.3 Wombaroo Echidna milk
(see attached meat mix recipes).
7-10 months
Out of burrow.
As above.
Present termite mound in the
800 – 1000g
Independent.
pen.
Faeces should resemble those of
Mix termites into meat mix.
normal adult echidnas, seen in
50g meat mix offered twice
Figure 20.
weekly.
1 tbsp of clean sifted dirt should
be added to each feed.
Milk +/- meat mix is offered as
often as the juvenile is active
 Under 3 weeks of age, it is generally not feasible to hand raise orphaned puggles. Puggles can vary greatly in weight when first in
care. Often weight losses are seen in the first few weeks until the puggle becomes settled.
 The above table is intended as a guide only. The ‘Wombaroo Feeding Chart’ can be found in the appendices section. Refer to the
species coordinator for further advice.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 62 of 69
Puggle development photographs
Figure 53:
Shows a puggle around 4
weeks of age.
Figure 54:
Compares a 4 week old puggle
to one that is between 5-6
weeks of age. Note the eyes are
almost open and spines just
starting to break through the
skin.
Figure 55:
Shows a puggle around 2
months of age.
Figure 56:
Shows a puggle around 2-3
months of age, with a visible
ear opening.
Figure 57:
Shows a puggle
approximately 5-6 months
of age drinking echidna
milk mixed into a slurry
with small carnivore mix.
All photographs sourced
from the Australian
Wildlife Hospital.
Feeding techniques and recipes
For the first few days in care, the puggle should be offered the relevant Wombaroo
Echidna Milk Replacer from the carer’s hand. For hygiene purposes the carer must
scrub hands with ‘chlorhexidine scrub’ prior to feeding the puggle. The hands should be
rinsed thoroughly and dried with a sterilised hand towel (Iron steam cleaned or
autoclaved).
Feeding steps
Hand feeding technique:







Carer to cleanse hands as above.
Unwrap puggle and weigh; record weight and work out relevant quantity of milk to
feed. Warm allocated quantity of milk and test on palmer side of wrist.
Place puggle in an upright position sitting hind legs on clean towel, with front legs
raised and perched onto feeding hand.
Drizzle milk from a sterile syringe onto the palm of the feeding hand. The Echidna
should probe the palm of the hand and ‘slurp’ the milk. Their tongue remains in
their mouth, and it is very much a
sucking action.
Once milk has been consumed or
echidna is reluctant to drink further,
begin cleaning the puggle with warm
water and a clean face washer.
Re-weigh the puggle to ascertain
amount of milk consumed.
Replace into a clean pouch. The puggle
will tend to fall asleep at this point.
Figure 58:
Echidna being hand-fed.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 64 of 69
Tube feeding
For the first few days in care the puggle may be reluctant to eat directly off the carers
hands. However, the milk should always be offered daily in this manner to encourage self
feeding. After three days of offering the milk without success, the carer must progress
with tube feeding. Tube feeding is a complex process and should only be carried out by
experienced carers or with veterinarian supervision. Tube feeding has the potential to
cause inhalation pneumonia if the tube is incorrectly placed.
A new sterile infant gastric feeding tube (IGFT) should be used for this process every
time.
The gauge of the tube is dependant upon the age of the puggle –
 Up to 4 weeks of age - 5fr IGFT
 Over 4 weeks of age – 8fr IGFT
Tube feeding technique (Preferably a two person operation)
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Carers to cleanse hands as above.
Unwrap puggle and weigh; record weight and work out relevant quantity of milk to
feed. Warm allocated quantity of milk and test on palmer side of wrist.
The length of tube needed to reach the puggle’s stomach must be measured. To do
this, place the end of the tube at the puggle’s stomach area and then line up the
tube along the simulated oesophagus up to the tip of the beak. Take a note of this
required length. Over insertion causes the tube to coil inside the stomach and can
re-enter the oesophagus.
Draw up the milk into feeding syringe and attach this to the feeding tube.
Prepare the feeding tube ready for insertion by lubricating the end with KY jelly.
First carer should hold the puggle firmly on a clean towel with snout raised
upward.
Second carer should carefully insert the tube into snout from the side of the
mouth to the designated marking on the tube. The carer must hold the junction
between the syringe and the tube with one hand (as the milk is very thick and
difficult to dispense), whilst depressing the syringe with the other hand.
Once the required quantity of milk has been given the tube should be ‘kinked off’
and carefully removed.
A small drop of milk should be applied to the outside of the mouth once the tube
is removed, in order for the puggle to get a taste of the milk and stimulate food
acceptance.
Re-weigh the puggle to ascertain amount of milk consumed.
Replace puggle into a clean pouch.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
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Weaning and preparing the juvenile echidna for release
The weaning process starts when the echidna juvenile is around 7 months of age (200
days); as in the wild. However, unlike the natural method of weaning displayed by the
mother, the rehabilitation process is a little slower. By 7 months the echidna juvenile has
already been outside in a purpose built pen for 2 months. It has been fed a diet of ‘meat
mix’ and echidna replacement milk. At the weaning stage the milk feeding ceases, and
termites are introduced to the diet. The handling of the echidnas at this stage must be
kept to a minimum (weekly weighing only), and observation should be from a distance.
Figure 59:
Shows an outside pen for an
echidna
Figure 60:
Shows the deep leaf litter and
vegetation. Note the shade
cloth cover for protection from
the heat.
Figure 61:
Shows the sturdy water
bowls and hollow logs for
burrowing.
Figure 62:
Shows a bank of echidna pens
with leafy overhangs.
All photographs sourced from the Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital Photo Gallery
Release procedure
Echidnas are best released according to climatic conditions. For instance, respected
echidna rehabilitator Helen George, releases her echidnas in September, one year
after they were born, whereas other carers in warmer climates release their echidnas
in autumn (May to June) to stop them becoming overweight in care.
Whatever the time of year of the release, it is expected that the echidna will drop body
weight in its first year after weaning, both in wild and hand reared sub-adults.
A soft release with a carer or other interested party is the best method of release,
where a pen can be constructed on the release property. The echidna should be
allowed to remain in the pen for a couple of days to get over the stress of travelling to
the property. The door can then be opened and the echidna is able to move off at its
own pace. Supplementary feeding for the first weeks or so, may help the echidna
settle into the area until it can develop it own home range.
Alternatively, just before dusk, the echidna can be placed in a large fish tank, a clean
44 gallon drum, plastic hospital box or other suitable container, which should be
placed on its side. A thick layer of soil and leaf litter should line the inside of the
container. The echidna is then free to move off at its own pace (Jackson, 2003).
If the echidna needs to be tracked for research, tracking devices or simple coloured
straws can be glued to the spines of the echidna prior to release (Jackson, 2003).
Conclusion
Echidnas are in care for some considerable time when orphaned and adult echidnas
are normally badly injured when they come into care. Therefore, it is essential that
the rehabilitator be aware of the commitment and specialised skills needed for this
species, before they consider taking on these amazing animals.
Reference List
Augee, M., Gooden, B., 1997. Echidnas of Australia and New Guinea, University of
New South Wales Press LTD, Sydney.
Augee, M., Gooden, B., Musser, A., 2006. Echidna - Extraordinary egg-laying
mammal, CSIRO Publishing.
Booth, R., 1999. Care and Medical Management of Monotremes. In: Wildlife In
Australia - Healthcare and Management, Western Plains Zoo, Dubbo, pp. 4150.
Clark,
P., 2004. Haematology
Collingwood.
of
Australian
Mammals,
CSIRO
Publishing,
Jackson, S., 2003. Australian Mammals - Biology and Captive Management, CSIRO
Publishing, Collingwood.
Johnston, S.D., Madden, C., Nicolson, V., Pyne, M., 2006. Identifying the sex of
Short-beaked Echidnas. Australian Veterinary Journal 84, 63-65.
Menkorst, P., Knight, F., 2001. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia, Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Rismiller, P.D., 1999. The Echidna - Australia's Enigma, Group West Publishers,
Hong Kong.
Rose, K., 1999. Common Diseases of Urban Wildlife. In: Sydney., U.o. (Ed.), Wildlife in
Australia - Healthcare and Management, Post Graduate Foundation in
Veterinary Science, Dubbo, pp. 365-430.
Triggs, B., 2004. Tracks, Scats and other Traces - A Field Guide to Australian
Mammals, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Tyndale-Biscoe, H., 1975. Life of Marsupials, Edward Arnold (Australia) Pty. Ltd.,
Victoria.
Walton, D.W., Richardson, B.J., 1989. Fauna of Australia. Mammalia., Vol. 1B,
Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
Page 68 of 69
Acknowledgments
Photos kindly provided by :The Australian Wildlife Hospital
Australia Zoo Wildlife Warriors Worldwide
Steve Irwin Way
Beerwah Qld 4519
www.wildlifewarriors.org.au
Telephone: 07 5436 2097
The entire contents of these notes should be considered copyright and no part of the
text may be reproduced in any form without written permission from Wildcare
Australia and/or the authors.
Appendices
Rescue Examination and Assessment Sheet – Echidnas
Wildcare Australia - Minimum Housing Standards
Wombaroo Feeding Chart
Principles of Echidna Rehabilitation
© Wildcare Australia 2006-2010
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