Classical Studies
Roman Archaeology and
Civilisation
The Romans and Britain
Intermediate 1 and 2
4743
Spring 1999
HIGHER STILL
Classical Studies
Roman Archaeology and
Civilisation
The Romans and Britain
Intermediate 1 and 2
Support Materials


CONTENTS
Introduction
Support Notes for Staff
Outcomes 1 - 4
The Literary Sources
Books for Staff Reference
Books Suitable for Students
Videos
Educational Visits
The Internet
Student Materials
I. Britain Before the Romans
II. The Roman Conquest of Britain
a) Caesar’s Campaigns
b) The Invasion of Claudius
c) Boudicca’s Revolt
d) Agricola’s Campaigns
III. Romanisation
IV. Life in a Roman - British Town
Classical Studies Support Materials: Roman Archaeology & Civilisation (Int 1&2)
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INTRODUCTION
These staff and student support materials for Classical Studies were developed as part
of the Higher Still Development Programme in response to needs identified at needs
analysis meetings and national seminars.
This support package provides staff notes and student notes and questions to support
the teaching of the historical, Roman civilisation in Britain aspects of the Roman
Archaeology and Civilisation unit at Intermediate 1 and 2. The support notes for staff
provide background information on the unit outcomes and relevant resources that
might be used with students. The support notes and questions for students focus on
the main phases of the Roman conquest of Britain, the reactions of the Britons, and
the lasting influences of the Romanisation which followed.
These materials are designed to be used in a flexible way at the discretion of the
teacher or lecturer. They can be used as they are or they can be adapted and/or added
to by the teacher/lecturer. They may be used in class for comprehension activities and
as starting points for discussion or individual or group investigation. They could also
be used in a supported self-study mode, if required. Most students will benefit from
direct teaching using the materials as a resource for reading, discussion and directed
work using the activities provided and/or others determined by the individual teacher
or lecturer. While students will tackle these activities individually for the most part,
there may be opportunities for some collaborative working and staff will wish to
discuss points raised with individuals, groups and the whole class. The exact way in
which this material is used is, of course, at the discretion of the individual teacher or
lecturer.
Many of the questions and activities contribute to the development by students of the
core skill component, Critical Thinking. Attainment of the Classical Studies course at
Intermediate 1 or 2 leads to the automatic award of Critical Thinking at the
appropriate level. For further information on core skills, refer to Core Skills:
Information for Senior Managers, (HSDU 1998).
Advice on learning and teaching may be found in Achievement for All, (SOEID 1996)
and in the Classical Studies Subject Guide.
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SUPPORT NOTES FOR STAFF
OUTCOMES 1 - 4
Outcome 1
The most accessible, though now rather dated, introductory book is probably Roman
Archaeology by Miranda Green. It has chapters on introductory archaeology, the story
of discovery, to dig or not to dig, digging the Bancroft Roman villa, excavators and
excavations, archaeology and science, reconstructing the past and finally what to do
and see. As with all the Aspects of Roman Life series, there are knowledge and
understanding and evaluating questions at the end of each section.
At a higher level, Archaeology: An Introduction by Kevin Greene is well illustrated,
not superficial, and very readable. Also enjoyable is Invitation to Archaeology by
Philip Rahtz. For the more serious student, Past Imperfect - The Story of Rescue
Archaeology by Barrie Jones deals with the problems faced by archaeologists in the
1960s and 1970s as they saw their evidence being destroyed faster than it could be
recorded.
On inscriptions, Understanding Roman Inscriptions by Lawrence Keppie is
predictably thorough and very readable. Easier for students is the Cambridge Latin
Course, Unit 3A p147-155, which explains, in a simple way, how to read Roman
inscriptions.
For this outcome, refer also to Archaeological Practice and Evidence (HSDU 1998).
Outcome 2
The video, Campaigns in History: The Romans in Britain, recently shown on The
Learning Channel, thoroughly covers pre-Roman Britain with a good section on the
hierarchical structure of Celtic society, and the reasons for the Roman invasions. It is
highly watchable.
Boudicca’s Revolt by Ian Andrews is a good book for students. It has sections on
Britain before the Romans, the legions come, the Britons are angered, the rebellion,
the Romans strike back, rebirth and a very good concluding chapter on life in Roman
Britain as the two traditions came together. The Cambridge Latin Course, Unit 2A,
stages 13-16, has much useful information on Roman and British interaction.
Graham Webster’s Rome Against Caractacus: The Roman Campaigns in Britain
AD48-58 is very sound on the Celtic opposition to the Romans. For those wishing a
more detailed account of Roman policy in conquered territories, the most impressive
work is R. Brandt and J. Slofstra, Roman and Native in the Low Countries: Spheres of
Interaction.
On the Roman Army, it is hard to find more thorough and informative accounts than
G.R. Watson, The Roman Soldier and G. Webster’s excellent The Roman Imperial
Army.
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Teachers should have access to S. Ireland’s excellent Roman Britain: A Sourcebook,
which provides a wealth of both literary sources and inscriptions from the earliest
contacts to the decline and collapse of Roman authority in Britain. Not only does it
deal thoroughly with the military and political history, but it also has a section, which
may be helpful for Outcomes 3 and 4, on religion, commerce and society.
Students should be encouraged, when considering the extracts provided, to focus on
that key question of historiography, the reliability of the sources. To that end brief
notes are given on the motivation and general approach of Tacitus, Suetonius and Dio
Cassius.
Students should also be made aware that this is an area full of potential for
comparison with modern history, for example, the expansion of the British Empire
and the European colonisation of America.
Outcome 3
It is from Roman towns that we can gain the most balanced perception of life in
Roman Britain. The best book on this area is Guy de la Bédoyère’s Roman Towns in
Britain. This looks at why towns were sited where they were, who lived in them, what
services and facilities they provided, how they were organised and their role in trade,
industry and economy. Teachers may also find Patrick Ottaway’s Archaeology in
British Towns interesting. For students, Peter Hodge’s Roman Towns is a reasonable
starting point.
As far as individual towns are concerned, there is a reasonable amount of information
available on London, Bath, Colchester, Silchester, York and St Albans. London is
probably best served with a particularly good and well illustrated, 48-page book by
Jenny Hall and Ralph Merrifield, Roman London. For teachers, Peter Marsden’s
Roman London and Ralph Merrifield’s London, City of Romans are both enjoyably
readable. On Bath, there is a host of good information in the Cambridge Latin
Course, Unit 3A. The official guidebook to the Roman Baths and Museum by Barry
Cunliffe is full of excellent illustrations. It should be remembered, however, that Bath
is a very special case of urban development. Roman Colchester, published by the
Cultural Activities Committee of Colchester Borough Council, is a fine account of a
town whose history is a microcosm of Roman-British experience. It also has a very
good bibliography, many of the articles in which students may be able to access
through their local libraries. Possibly the most comprehensive book on any Roman
site is George Boon’s Silchester: The Roman Town of Calleva, though there have been
new excavations since its publication in 1974. The English Heritage book on Roman
York by Patrick Ottaway is excellent. The Yorkshire Museum book by Elizabeth
Hartley, Roman Life at the Yorkshire Museum, is suitable for students. A video is
available on Roman Verulamium (St Albans).
The requirement of studying life in a town does not mean that Roman Scotland should
be ignored. There are interesting developments at Newsteads, Bar Hill, Bearsden,
Camelon and also at Birrens. The booklet, The Romans in Strathclyde: Educational
Visits, by Lawrence Keppie and Margaret Robb gives details of museums and site
visits. Similarly Hadrian’s Wall with its excellent Roman Army Museum and the
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Vindolanda site is an accessible source of much information. Stephen Johnson’s
Hadrian’s Wall is generally sound and has good sections on further reading and where
to visit the wall. Robin Birley, Vindolanda: A Roman Frontier Post on Hadrian’s
Wall is very thorough, but may be too difficult for students. Also intriguing is rural
society in Roman Britain - a subject dealt with comprehensively by Guy de la
Bédoyère in Roman Villas and the Countryside. All of the above as well as urban life
is covered by Jean M Jamieson in The Romans in Britain which is suitable for
students.
Finally, The Time Team series with Tony Robinson on Channel 4 is a very good
source, not only of information but also of inspiration, for young would-be
archaeologists.
Outcome 4
This outcome is best attempted as a comparative study by examining aspects of
Roman-British life, language, religion, trade, industry and urban economies and by
tracing their links to modern British society.
It would be advantageous if students were able to show understanding of how, for
example, the synthesis by Roman-British culture of Roman and Celtic cults was
reflected by a similar trend in wider society and to distinguish parallels in
contemporary Britain.
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THE LITERARY SOURCES
Tacitus
A good aid for teachers is F.R.D. Goodyear’s Tacitus, (No. 4 in the New Surveys in
the Classics series). Tacitus was born around AD 56, probably of Gallic or north
Italian stock. His major works are the Annals, the Histories and Agricola, a biography
of his father-in-law who was governor of Britain. Although he claims to write
dispassionately, his view of history is coloured by his own experience, especially
during the principate of Domitian (81-96 AD). He looks back in admiration to the
Republic and the senatorial oligarchy that dominated it. The virtues of those days, he
suggests, have been lost under the emperors.
Goodyear interestingly discusses his attitude to the Britons and their leaders, such as
Caractacus and Boudicca. They are presented as examples of outraged virtue or
nobility in distress or, at least, as worthy antagonists. This portrayal is not to be
explained as an attempt to give some expression to ideological opposition to Rome
amongst Rome’s subjects. Nor is it, except subsidiarily, explained by a desire to point
a contrast between the integrity of the barbarians and the degeneracy of Rome, but
rather as part of Tacitus’ literary technique. In presenting the ‘noble savage’ as the
adversary of imperial Rome, Tacitus can partly recreate the heroic tone of republican
history, the tones struck by Livy in his early books, and by so doing relieve the gloom
of the political history which forms his central subject. Few will believe that Tacitus
accepts the views he puts in the mouths of chieftains such as Calgacus.
Suetonius
Born around AD 69, he is an inferior historian in all ways to Tacitus. His main work
is 12 biographies on Lives of the Caesars from Julius Caesar to Domitian. Much of
what he writes is interesting and illuminating, but unfortunately no scandal is too
sordid, no detail too salacious to avoid inclusion in his work.
Dio Cassius
Twice consul, Dio wrote a Roman history from the beginning to AD 229. We have
only abbreviations or epitomies of his account of the Romans in Britain. Although
distanced in time from the 1st century AD events he describes, his work provides us
with information on periods not covered elsewhere.
Reliability of Sources
Students should be urged to examine this question closely. The Roman origin of our
sources is clearly an important factor, though it must be made clear that this does not
necessarily indicate partiality or bias. It was a matter of pride to these historians that
they were able to rise above nationalistic and imperialist considerations and deliver an
accurate account of the events, which they describe. Nevertheless there is
undoubtedly still a need for caution. Students should be warned that the speeches in
Tacitus and Dio Cassius are fabrications, intended to give the flavour of what, for
example, Caractacus or Boudicca might have said to their followers. Under such
circumstances a degree of selectivity and subjectivity was unavoidable.
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BOOKS FOR STAFF REFERENCE
Many of these books may not currently be in print but may already form part of the
department ‘library’ built up over the years. A selection is likely to be available for
consultation, however, in many Reference Libraries.
Birley, Robin, Vindolanda: A Roman Frontier Post on Hadrian’s Wall, (Thames and
Hudson, 1997)
Brandt, R. and Slofstra, J. (ed.), Roman and Native in the Low Countries: Spheres of
Interaction, (Oxford, 1983)
Breeze, David, Roman Scotland, (Batsford/HS, 1996)
Cambridge Latin Course: Unit IIA, (Cambridge University Press, 1990)
Cambridge Latin Course: Unit IIIA, (Cambridge University Press, 1990)
Cunliffe, Barry, English Heritage Book of Roman Bath, (Batsford / English Heritage,
1995)
De la Bédoyère, Guy, English Heritage Book of Roman Towns in Britain, (Batsford /
English Heritage, 1992)
De la Bédoyère, Guy, English Heritage Book of Roman Villas and the Countryside,
(Batsford / English Heritage, 1993)
Goodyear, F.R.D., Tacitus, (Joint Association of Classics Teachers / Clarendon Press,
1970)
Green, Miranda, Roman Archaeology, (Longman, 1983)
Greene, Kevin, Archaeology: An Introduction, (Batsford, 1990)
Hall, J. and Merrifield, R., Roman London, (HMSO / Museum of London, 1986)
Hartley, Elizabeth, Roman Life at the Yorkshire Museum, (Longman, 1990)
Ireland, S., Roman Britain: A Sourcebook, (Croom Helm, 1986)
Jamieson, Jean M., The Romans in Britain, (Edward Arnold, 1975)
Johnson, Stephen, English Heritage Book of Hadrian’s Wall, (Batsford, 1989)
Keppie, Lawrence J. F., Understanding Roman Inscriptions, (Batsford, 1991)
Marsden, Peter, Roman London, (Thames and Hudson, 1980)
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Merrifield, Ralph, London, City of the Romans, (Batsford, 1983)
Ottaway, Patrick, Archaeology in British Towns, (Routledge, 1992)
Ottaway, Patrick, Book of Roman York, (Batsford / English Heritage, 1993)
Rahtz, Philip, Invitation to Archaeology, (Blackwell, 1991)
Watson, G.R., The Roman Soldier, (Thames and Hudson, 1969)
Webster, Graham, Rome against Caractacus, (Batsford, 1993)
Webster, Graham, The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Centuries AD,
(Constable, 1996)
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BOOKS SUITABLE FOR STUDENTS
There are a large number of books on Roman Britain. The following bibliography is a
selection that can easily be supplemented by individual teachers. Again, not all of
these books are necessarily currently in print.
Andrews, I, Boudicca’s Revolt, (CUP)
Corbishley, M, Town Life in Roman Britain, (Harrap, 1981) (this book has an
excellent further reading list on p 48-9)
Hodge, Peter, Roman Towns, (Longman, 1977)
Hughes, M & Forrest, M, The Romans Discover Britain, (CUP, 1981) (huge amount
of primary source material) + Teacher’s Handbook (CUP, 1981)
Jones, D & P, The Villas of Roman Britains, (Jackdaw)
Liversidge, J, Roman Britain, (Longman, 1983)
Marsden, B, Roman Invaders and Settlers, (Wayland, 1994)
Mason, J, Roman Britain: Resource Book, (Longman, 1991)
Place, R, The Romans: Fact and Fiction, (CUP, 1988)
Sauvain, P, Roman Britain, (MacMillan)
Wilkins, F, Growing Up in Roman Britain, (Batsford, 1979)
Finally, most helpful of all is a collection of History Units and Workcards on the
Romans in Britain published by Longman and written by David Birt in 1976.
Titles are as follows:
Units
Workcards
Invasion
The Roman Conquest of Britain
A Roman Soldier in Britain
Hadrian’s Wall
Roads, Travel and Trade
The Roman Villa
The Roman Town
Religion in Roman Britain
The Legions Leave
Everyday Life in Roman Britain
Britain Before the Romans
Attacking the Wall
Roman Mosaics
Boudicca’s Revolt
Investigating the Druids
Roman Ships
Gladiators
Investigating King Arthur
Pottery in Roman Britain
Siege Machines
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VIDEOS
The following videos may be of some help in this unit.
The Roman Empire and its Civilisation
Running Time: 83 minutes
Distributor:
Telltale International
3 William Street
Edinburgh EH3 7NG
From the founding of Rome to the end of the Empire in the West, this programme
presents an overview of Roman history along with a closer look at selected Roman
institutions, thought, culture and daily life. Weaving together the diverse strands of
the Roman experience, the programme pays particular attention to those factors of
character and culture that determined the course of Roman history. The Rise of the
Republic covers the period from Rome’s founding to 146 BC (including her
domination of the Mediterranean), the Roman character, Republican political
institutions, religion and social classes. From Republic to Empire, chronicles the
history of Republican Rome, from the mid-second century BC to the crowning of
Augustus as first emperor in 27 BC, the army, literature, housing in Caesar’s Rome.
The Pax Romana traces the growth of the Empire from the reign of Augustus to the
last of the ‘Five Good Emperors’, Marcus Aurelius; Imperial literature, games, Roman
daily life. Decline and Fall examines Rome from AD 180 to 476; barbarian
incursions, the breakdown of administration; art and architecture, Christianity;
Rome’s legacy to the West.
Rome: The Augustan Age
Running Time: 24 minutes (each)
Distributor:
Open University Educational Enterprises Ltd
12 Cofferidge Close
Stoney Stratford
Milton Keynes MK11 1BY
Introduces students interested in the ancient world to the main cultural, political and
social features of the Roman Empire in the late first century BC and the early first
century AD. Aims to enable the viewer to study, appreciate and, ultimately, to
evaluate a wide selection of ancient source-material (in translation) - literary,
historical, philosophical, epigraphic, archaeological and architectural - thus gaining an
informed appreciation of some of the most important aspects and interrelations of
Roman civilisation in this period. This includes Rome under Augustus, Portrait and
Image, Interior Decoration, Town and Country, Architecture and Town Planning, and
Gallia Narbonensis.
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Britain: A Granary for Rome
Running Time: 23 minutes
Distributor:
Guild Sound and Vision Ltd
Woodston House
Oundle Road
Peterborough PE2 9PZ
The state of British agriculture at the time of the Roman invasion is a subject of
dispute among archaeologists. This video explores the implications of this dispute
through the study of two sites: the Lunt Roman Fort, near Coventry, where there are
traces of three enormous granaries, and Buster Ancient Farm in Hampshire where
research indicates there could have been substantial grain production. Dr Peter
Reynolds, Director of Buster, concludes that British supplies of grain may have been
the principal reason for the Roman invasion.
Exploring Roman Britain
Running Time: 13 minutes
Distributor:
University of Sheffield
Audio-Visual and Television Service
Sheffield S10 2TN
Part 1: How the Town Grew - traces the history of Verulamium.
Part 2: Living in the Town - reconstructs life in Verulamium.
Part 3: Wider Horizons - looks at the town’s relationship with the outside world.
Roman Britain: The Towns
Running Time: 15 minutes
Distributor:
Hugh Baddely Productions
64 Moffats Lane
Brookman Park
Hatfield
Hertfordshire
AL19 7RU
This video shows the manner in which archaeological excavation followed by a
careful examination of the objects discovered have gradually built up our knowledge
of life in Roman Britain. Roman sites are shown as far afield as Verulamium, Bath,
Carleon, Vindolanda. A Roman family scene is reconstructed using actors in
costume.
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Roman Britain: Fortification
Running Time: 14 minutes
Distributor:
Hugh Baddely Productions
64 Moffats Lane
Brookman Park
Hatfield
Hertfordshire
AL19 7RU
Deals with the conquest and occupation of Britain. Fortifications are dealt with in
three sections: typical early forts; Hadrian’s Wall, its construction and method of
defence; the forts of the Saxon shore. Animated maps are used and pictorial reconstructions and models suggest the appearance of military structures.
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EDUCATIONAL VISITS
CONTACTS AND REFERENCES
Falkirk Council Museums Services
Contact: Mrs Margaret Bowden, Falkirk Museums Education Officer, Callendar
House, Callendar Park, Falkirk FK1 1YR; telephone 01324 503770. Information Pack
for teachers available. Bookings for Kinneil Museum, Bo’ness, are made through Mrs
Bowden.
Hunterian Museum, Glasgow
Contact: Claire Leonard, Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow, University
Avenue, Glasgow G12 8QQ; telephone0141 330 4221. Guided talks on the Ancient
Greeks and the Romans in Scotland; collection from the Antonine Wall; costumes and
artefact handling available. Booking well in advance highly recommended. Small
administration fee per class.
National Musuems of Scotland - Education Officer 0131 225 7534.
Historic Scotland - Education Officer, telephone 0131 668 8732.
HISTORIC SCOTLAND PROPERTIES IN CARE
Borders
Dere Street Roman Road
Beside Soutra Aisle, just of the A68. O.S. Map Ref: 73 NT 452 580. A good stretch
of the Roman Road running from Corbridge, beside Hadrian’s Wall, to Cramond on
the Firth of Forth. Beside the road are scoops, pits from which the gravel for building
the road was taken.
Central Region - Antonine Wall Monuments
Castlecary
East of Castlecary Village on the B816. O.S. Map Ref: 65 NS 790 783. The reduced
earthworks of a fort.
Rough Castle
Signposted at Bonnybridge, 1 mile east. O.S. Map Ref: 65 NS 835 798-845 799. The
best-preserved length of rampart and ditch, together with the earthworks of a fort, the
most complete on the Wall, and a short length of military way with quarry pits.
Seabegs Wood
1 mile west of Bonnybridge. O.S. Map Ref: 65 NS 835 798-811 792. A stretch of
rampart and ditch with a military way behind.
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Watling Lodge
In Falkirk, signposted from A9. O.S. Map Ref: 65 NS 866 798-863 798. The best
section of ditch.
Strathclyde - Antonine Wall Monuments
Bar Hill Fort
Half a mile east of Twechar, signposted from village. O.S. Map Ref: 64 NS 714 762706 740. The highest fort on the line of the Wall, containing the foundations of the
headquarters building and bathhouse. To the east sits a small Iron Age fort. The Wall
ditch runs past both.
Bearsden Bathhouse
On the Roman Road, Bearsden. The well-preserved remains of a bathhouse and
latrine, built in the 2nd century AD to serve a small fort.
Croy Hill
Between Croy and Dullatur. O.S. Map Ref: 64 NS 739 769-725 762. The fort here is
not visible, but the Wall ditch survives well and there are two beacon platforms.
Tollark and Garnhall
West of Castlecary. O.S. Map Ref: 64 NS 783 781-769 777. A well-preserved
section of ditch.
Tayside
Ardunie Roman Signal Station
At Trinity Gask, 4 miles north of Auchterarder. O.S. Map Ref: 58 NN 946 187. The
site of a Roman watch tower, one of a series running between Ardoch and the Tay,
dating to the first century.
Blackhall Roman Camp, Ardoch
Half a mile north of Braco. O.S. Map Ref: 58 NN 840 109. Parts of the defences of
two Roman camps, probably dating to the early third century.
Muir o’ Fauld Roman Signal Station
East of Ardunie. O.S. Map Ref: 58 NN 982 189. Another watch tower site in the
same series as Ardunie. O.S. Map Ref: 58 NN 840 189. Another watch tower site in
the same series as Ardunie.
The following extract is taken from Historic Scotland, the Sites to See: A guide to
over 300 Historic Sites Spanning 5000 Years.
‘The land now known as Scotland lay on the north west frontier of the Roman Empire.
Roman armies invaded Scotland on several occasions, sometimes defeating the
northern tribes but never permanently incorporating even the tribes of southern
Scotland into their empire. The nature of the contact between Rome and her northern
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neighbours was thus primarily military, and the surviving monuments reflect this.
Nearly all the monuments only survive today as earthworks, but they are a remarkable
group and of international importance.
Each time the Roman army set up camp, it protected itself by constructing a rampart
and ditch, and parts of two such camps may be seen at Black Hill, Ardoch (Tayside).
When the empire ceased expanding, its borders were protected by frontiers. Parts of
one such line survives in Perthshire and is represented by the watch-towers at Muir o’
Fauld and Ardunie, which appear to date to the first century AD.
Shortly after their construction, the Romans withdrew to the Tyne-Solway line, where
they built Hadrian’s Wall in the 120s. That Wall, in turn, was succeeded in the 140s
by a new frontier line, the Antonine Wall, constructed across Central Scotland from
sea to sea. This frontier, which only lasted about 20 years, can still be traced
intermittently today. Behind the Wall lay forts and fortlets which housed the troops
charged with the duties of defending the province and controlling its inhabitants in the
border region. These military installations were linked by roads, such as that at Soutra
beside the A68 (Borders).’
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THE INTERNET
Schools in which a modem is available should be able to access the Internet.
Netscape, a browser, is free for academic use. The following web sites may be
helpful.
http://www.gla.ac.uk/Museum/
The web site of the Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow, provides information
and educational activities on the Romans in Scotland.
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/~nantiq
The web site of the National Museum of Antiquities provides information on and
illustrations of artefacts e.g. weaponry, dress, ornaments, and offers a visit to a virtual
Temple of Mithras.
http://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk
The web site of Historic Scotland provides information on sites and activities.
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ROMAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND CIVILISATION
THE ROMANS AND BRITAIN
INTERMEDIATE 1 AND 2
STUDENT MATERIALS
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I.
BRITAIN BEFORE THE ROMANS
The Romans thought, with some justification, that Rome was the centre of the world.
Britain was, on the other hand, as Horace, the Roman poet, writes ‘right at the very
end of the earth.’ Another poet, Catullus, uses the same phrase and, describes Britain
as cut off by a ‘terrifying sea’ from the rest of the world. The Romans did not think
much of the inhabitants of these islands. Horace calls them ‘vicious to strangers’. Is
this the prejudice of Italian-based writers? Or is there some truth in these claims.
Between 100 BC and 75 BC some of the tribes of the part of Northern France, which
the Romans called Gallia Belgica, migrated to Britain and settled there, establishing
themselves in the south-east of Britain. By using deeper ploughs, the new settlers
were able to move into and clear of forest previously untouched areas. By 55 BC
when the Romans came for the first time, the new tribes were well established in
Britain.
These tribes were ruled over by a chief, who with help and support of the nobles of the
tribe (often his relatives) exercised total control over his tribesmen. They resembled in
some ways the Highland clans of 18th century Scotland. The Belgic chiefs would have
understood the attitude of Cameron of Lochiel, the chief of the Camerons, who could
call his tribesmen ‘his children’ but at the same time burn down the houses of any of
his clan who refused to join him in the Jacobite Uprising of 1745. To the Belgic chiefs
of the 1st century BC their prestige and pride were all-important and played a major
role in their decisions, especially those involving warfare. The ordinary tribes-people
had hard lives, farming some fields and producing subsistence levels of wheat and
barley. Most tribesmen lived in small communities, although some urbanisation was
beginning to occur. Julius Caesar did not think much of these tribes.
‘Most of those living in the interior of the island do not sow grain but live
on meat and milk and wear the skins of animals. All of them use woad, a
blue dye, to make themselves appear wild in battle. They have long hair,
but shave all their bodies except their heads and upper lips. They share
their wives with 10 or 12 other men, usually relatives.’
There was one other important group in this tribal society. They were the Druids - a
group of priests who combined a wide level of knowledge and intelligence with a
belief in the importance of human sacrifice.
Julius Caesar describes their role.
‘The task of the Druids is to perform sacrifices, see to the worship of the
gods and to interpret matters to do with religion. They are judges in any
disputed matters whether private or public.’
These men clearly had a powerful role within the tribe and unlike the chiefs who
concerned themselves largely with matters specific to their own tribes, the Druids had
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an influence beyond that of their own tribes. They became the focus of resistance to
the Roman invasion, much feared by the Romans who killed any Druid they were able
to.
Today we live in a post-imperialistic age - the time of empires has (for the moment, at
least) passed. Because of this people today often look back at pre-imperialistic
societies, whether it is the tribes of Celtic Britain, or of 19th century Africa, or the
Indian tribes of North America and see them as idyllic societies. Some of you will
have seen the film ‘Dances with Wolves’ and its portrayal of Indian life. We should
be careful about accepting this uncritically. The slave chain shown below predates the
Roman invasion and suggests that slavery, perhaps involving people from other tribes
captured in war, was a feature of pre-Roman Britain.
Figure 1: Slave Chain
In studying this topic you should concentrate on the evidence, especially the
archaeological evidence. Do not make assumptions based on late 20th century views.
When you are dealing with written evidence, consider the motives of the author in
writing what he (it is always a he) does.
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Questions
1. What did the Romans think of Britain and the British? Why do you think they felt
this way?
2. What advantage did the Belgic settlers have over the Britons who already lived
there?
3. What were the 3 main groups of these tribal societies?
4. How did the chiefs treat their tribes-people?
5. What does ‘urbanisation’ mean? In what ways was urbanisation a threat to tribal
societies?
6. Find out at least 3 pieces of information about the Highland clans before the 1745
rebellion.
7. How do you think Julius Caesar felt about the Britons? Give reasons for your
answer. Should we believe what Caesar writes?
8. What role did the Druids have? Why did the Romans hate them?
9. Of what do we need to be careful when commenting on tribal life in pre-Roman
Britain?
10. What 2 rules should you follow when considering historical evidence of life in the
classical world?
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II.
THE ROMAN CONQUEST OF BRITAIN
The following need to be examined:
a) Julius Caesar’s two campaigns
b) The invasion of Claudius
c) Boudicca’s Revolt
d) Agricola’s campaigns.
In each of these areas, three questions must be answered:
a) What prompted the Roman aggression?
b) How did the British tribes react?
c) Why did the Romans win?
A. Julius Caesar’s Two Campaigns
Our main source for Julius Caesar’s campaigns in Britain in 55 BC and again in 54
BC is a book written by Caesar himself called The Gallic War. Caesar had been
fighting and beating the tribes of Gaul (France) and at the end of summer in 55 BC
decided to cross the Channel and discover what Britain and the British tribes were
like. Caesar claims that the British tribes had been helping the Gauls. There were of
course other reasons. Caesar liked winning battles and the more battles he won, the
more secure was his position against his political enemies in Rome. There were also
widespread rumours of great mineral wealth in Britain. Over 400 years before
Caesar’s invasion, Herodotus, a Greek historian, had written, ‘It is clear that the
northern parts of Europe are richest in gold’.
Caesar did not intend to stay in Britain or even to leave Roman troops there. His
campaigns were a mixture of punishment raid (for British help to the Gauls) and
reconnaissance (to find out if the rumours of mineral wealth were true).
Tacitus, a Roman historian, writes:
‘The first man to cross with an army to Britain was the divine Julius.
After winning battles against those living there, he captured the area
around the coast. But he showed the island to future generations rather
than bequeathed it.’
Tacitus, Agricola
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There were enormous dangers for Caesar in undertaking this campaign. He had little
information. He claims ‘The Gauls knew nothing either about the size of the island or
the tribes who lived there’. So he sent out a warship commanded by one of his
officers to reconnoitre and report back. Even then the logistics of taking 2 legions
plus cavalry support across the Channel were awesome. Despite all these problems
and despite finding the enemy waiting on the sea cliffs for them when he arrived, the
Romans managed to land and defeat the hostile tribesmen. After this victory some
British chiefs came to Caesar to ask for peace.
Both in 55 BC and the following year, when he returned with a larger force of 25,000
men, Caesar faced fierce opposition from some tribes. However, he achieved his main
aims of taking hostages to guarantee the good behaviour of the hostages’ tribes and of
letting the Britons see the power of the Roman army.
As to why the Romans won and the Britons lost, we have already mentioned the
rivalry between different tribes. ‘My enemy’s enemy is my friend’ is a simple way of
summing up what many chiefs thought. If a rival tribe was fighting the Romans, then
they would help the Romans.
The Britons were every bit as brave as the Romans. They thought of themselves as
warriors. They raced into battle in chariots, then jumped down to fight, covered in
woad and shrieking loudly. The Romans, however, had one thing the British lacked military discipline. They fought not as individuals but as a unit and by doing so were
able to defeat enemy forces that were many times greater in number. In the 1st
century BC, the government of Rome was in disarray with a series of civil wars. But
throughout that period the Roman legions developed into the most effective military
force the world had ever seen. Against them, for all their individual bravery, the
Britons stood little chance.
Figure 2: Roman Legionary
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Questions
1. Find 4 reasons why Caesar led his troops to Britain.
2. What dangers did Caesar and his men face in landing in Britain?
3. What were the 2 main reasons for the Roman victories during these campaigns?
4. Imagine you are Julius Caesar and planning to lead your army to Britain. What
precautions would you take to ensure the success of your campaign?
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B. The Invasion of Claudius
After Caesar’s campaigns, Britain remained relatively undisturbed by the Romans for
nearly 100 years. During this time, a geographer named Strabo wrote an account of
the British:
‘They are taller than the Gauls with hair less yellow and more gangly
bodies. When I saw some in Rome, they were higher by half a foot than
the tallest Romans, though their bodies were crooked and their legs
bandy.’
In 43 AD all of this was to change. The Roman emperor, Claudius, had decided to
invade Britain, conquer it and make it part of the Roman empire. Claudius may have
been attracted by the mineral wealth or by the corn-producing capacity of the country.
However, the main reason was probably Claudius’ own position. He had been put
into power 2 years previously by the Praetorian Guard, (the imperial bodyguard
regiments based around Rome), after the assassination of his nephew, the emperor
Caligula. He needed a military victory to show the army as a whole that he was not
just a pawn of the Praetorians.
The invasion, under the command of the Roman general, Aulus Plautius, involved 4
legions. As with Caesar’s campaigns before, some tribes made peace with the
Romans, while others fought. The main focus of resistance to the Romans was the
Catuvellauni tribe, led by two brothers Caractacus and Togodumnus. The Romans
used their superior military training, tactics and weaponry, as evidenced by the
catapult bolt below to defeat the brothers and kill Togodumnus.
Figure 3: Catapult Bolt Through a Backbone
Caractacus fought on bravely but in vain. In this passage Tacitus describes how
Caractacus, prepared for, his final battle against the Romans.
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Tacitus, Annals 12.34
‘The British chieftains went round their men, encouraging them and
telling them not to be afraid but to be of good heart, and urging them to
fight bravely. Caractacus, moving along the battle line, emphasised the
importance of this day and this battle, which would win them back their
freedom or make them slaves forever. He called upon their ancestors, who
had driven back Julius Caesar and bravely saved their present descendants
from Roman rule and taxes - and their wives and children from rape and
misery. His troops applauded these words. Everyone then swore by the
oath of his tribe that he would never yield, even if wounded, to the
enemy.’
Questions
1. What obvious point must be borne in mind when considering what Caractacus is
alleged to have said to his troops?
2. There is at least one outright lie in the passage. What is it?
3. Which of the arguments Caractacus makes for resisting the Romans seems to you
to be most emotive?
4. The phrase ‘by the oath of his tribe’ points up one of the main problems
Caractacus had in organising the anti-Roman resistance. Can you identify that
problem?
After his capture, Caractacus was taken to Rome where he was brought before
Claudius. The Roman historian, Tacitus, gives an account of this meeting.
Tacitus, Annals 12.36: Caractacus speaks before Claudius, the Roman emperor, in
Rome, to where he has been taken as a prisoner.
‘If I had won only limited success through my ancestry and rank, I would
have come here as a friend not a prisoner and you would have been glad to
make an alliance, without war, with the noble king of many tribes. But
yours is the glory, mine the humiliation. Horses, soldiers, weapons and
riches were once mine. You cannot be surprised that I regret losing such
things. You may want to rule the world but that does not mean that all
others welcome being slaves. If I had given in without a fight before I was
brought here, no one would have heard of my fall or your victory. If you
kill me, they will be soon forgotten. Spare me, and I will be an eternal
monument to your mercy!’
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Questions
5. Do you find the arguments Caractacus puts forward in his plea for mercy
compelling?
6. Which of these fates would you have preferred had you been in Caractacus’ place?
Give a reason for your answer.
(i)
death in battle at the head of your troops
(ii)
execution after appearing in a Roman triumph
(iii)
living as a pensioner of Rome.
1. Why should we be cautious about accepting Tacitus’ version of what Caractacus
says?
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C. Boudicca’s Revolt
Within 15 years most of central and southern Britain was under Roman control. But it
was a fragile control. The Druids, based on the island of Mona (Anglesey), still had
the capacity to stir up fanatical resistance to Roman power. This was, however, a
military problem and the governor, Suetonius Paulinus, was a capable general. There
were other difficulties. The Romans began to seize land from the Britons for their
colonists, especially around Camulodunum, (Colchester). Wealthy Britons had been
forced to become priests of the new temple of Claudius in the town - a ruinously
expensive task. Behind the Roman troops came Roman businessmen, including
moneylenders. Seneca, the tutor of Nero, was prominent among these. He lent out
vast sums at high rates of interest. The British nobles had taken out loans but now,
when Seneca wanted them repaid, they could not afford to do so. His agents used
force and British resentment of what they saw as Roman greed increased.
After the governor the second most powerful man in the province was Catus
Decianus, the procurator. He supported the Roman business community and, after the
death of Prastagus, the king of the Iceni - a tribe based in Norfolk - he attempted to
seize the king’s lands. Boudicca, the queen, was beaten. Her daughters were raped.
The Iceni rose in revolt.
The timing of the revolt caught the Romans unaware. Suetonius Paulinus with most
of the province’s military furies was attempting to capture Mona and to destroy the
Druids’ main base.
Tacitus, Annals 14.30:
‘Along the shore stood the enemy in a close-packed array of armed men
interspersed with women dressed like Furies in funeral black, with
streaming hair and brandishing torches. Round about were the Druids,
their hands raised to heaven, pouring out dire curses. The Roman troops
were so struck with dismay at this weird sight that they became rooted to
the spot as though their limbs were paralysed and laid themselves open to
wounds. Then, bolstered by the encouragements of their commander and
urging one another not to be afraid of this mass of fanatical women, they
advanced with their standards, cut down all they met, and enveloped them
in the flames of their own torches. After this a garrison was imposed on
the conquered natives, and the groves devoted to their savage rites cut
down; for it was part of their religion to drench their altars with the blood
of captives and to consult their gods by means of human entrails. While
Suetonius was occupied with this, he received reports of the sudden revolt
of the province.’
Questions
1. What did the Druids hope to achieve by their behaviour?
2. Who were the Furies?
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3. What impression of the island of Mona is Tacitus trying to convey?
4. Why were the Romans successful?
5. What did they do after their victory?
6. Why were the Romans so keen to crush Druidism?
Boudicca’s revolt spread as the Iceni were joined by the Trinovantes around
Camulodunum. Boudicca, according to the Roman historian Dio Cassius, stirred up
her people.
‘The Romans are afraid. We British prefer action. The tents we have are
safer than their walls. Our shields give better protection than their armour.
Let us show them they are hares and foxes attempting to control dogs and
wolves.’
Questions
7. Do you think that this is the sort of speech Boudicca might have made?
8. What does she mean when she calls the British ‘dogs and wolves’ and the Romans
‘hares and foxes’?
The British captured and destroyed three of the new towns: Camulodunum, the hated
centre of the cult of Claudius; Londinium, the administrative and commercial centre
of the new province; and Verulamium (St Albans). Suetonius had returned from
Mona when he heard of the revolt but chose to abandon London and retreat down
Watling Street, for he knew that tribal armies could rarely hold together for any length
of time. But in doing so he allowed the British to burn, plunder and rape their way
through Londinium and Verulamium. The revenge the British took on these towns
was fearful.
Dio Cassius’ description of British atrocities during Boudicca’s rebellion.
This is a very strong passage and students must consider whether they accept it as true
or why it might be judged exaggerated or perhaps even false.
Dio Cassius, 62.7.1-3
‘After she had spoken to her people in this way, Boudicca led her army
against the Romans. They lacked a leader since Paulinus, the governor,
had led an expedition to Mona, an island off the coast of Britain. Because
of this she was able to destroy and ransack two British cities with
unimaginable savagery. Those captured by the Britons were tortured
horribly. The most terrible of the atrocities was this. They hung up the
most noble women after stripping them of their clothes. They then cut off
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their breasts and sewed them to their mouths so that it appeared that they
were eating them. After this they impaled the women on sharp poles. As
they committed these crimes, they made sacrifices, feasted and behaved
like maniacs in all their other sacred places, especially in the grove of
Andate. They believed she was the spirit of Victory and gave her great
respect.’
Questions
9. What advantage did the British have at the start of their revolt?
10. Why do atrocities like those described in the passage occur in war? Do they have
a purpose?
11. Do you think the Roman army behaved like this?
12. Why are women so often the victims of such atrocities?
The British had mistaken destroying Roman towns and plundering them for victory.
They were triumphant. But the main Roman army was intact and when the two
armies met, Roman discipline won a notable victory. Tacitus, the historian, claims
that 80,000 British were killed and only 400 Romans. Even allowing for
exaggeration, it was a crushing defeat for the tribes. Boudicca killed herself and her
army dissolved to endure a winter of Roman revenge attacks. Nero sent out
Polyelitus, one of his most important freedmen, to try to ensure that reconciliation
rather than revenge became the Romans’ policy. He was largely successful and out of
the ruins of Boudicca’s revolt a new generation of Roman-British people grew up.
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D. Agricola’s Campaigns
The failure of Boudicca’s rebellion removed the threat of internal disruption to the
Roman-controlled areas of Britain, a frontier marked by the Fosse Way, a road
running from Exeter to Lincoln. It was clear that, if these areas were to be allowed to
prosper in peace, the tribes outside Roman control, in Wales, the north of England and
even Scotland would have to be beaten into subjugation. This process was started in
the early 70’s AD by the governor Cerialis who moved against the powerful Brigantes
in the north of England and by his successor Frontinus who successfully attacked the
Silures of Southern Wales and the Ordovices in the north of Wales. Frontinus was
succeeded in 78 AD by Gnaeus Julius Agricola. We know a lot about this governor
because the Roman historian, Tacitus, wrote a biography about him. Tacitus was
Agricola’s son-in-law and he regarded him as a hero. We should, therefore, be careful
about accepting all his views on Agricola’s action.
That Agricola was a good appointment cannot be doubted. He had served in Britain
as a military tribune on Suetonius Paulinus’ staff during the revolt of Boudicca and
had commanded the 20th legion Valeria Victrix when Petilius Cerialis was governor.
Perhaps because of his own experiences during the Boudiccan rebellion, he was
determined to crush the least sign of tribal dissent. The Ordovices were almost
exterminated and Mona, the old centre of tribal resistance, was recaptured. The rest of
his governorship, which lasted for the exceptionally long period of 7 years, was spent
in subduing the lowlands of Scotland and in his final 2 years on invading the eastern
Highlands. During his final year as governor, 84 AD, he defeated the Highland tribes
at the battle of Mons Graupius. Limits on his manpower forced the Romans to
withdraw from the Highlands.
In the following passage Calgacus, a British chief, urges his troops, before the battle
of Mons Graupius, to resist Roman aggression.
Tacitus, Agricola. 30-32
‘When I think about why we are fighting and the difficulties of our present
position, I feel very strongly that the unity you are displaying today will
bring about freedom for all of Britain. You have gathered here - freemen
all of you. Behind us there are no lands to retreat to - only a sea controlled
by the Roman fleet. In battles with the Romans there was sometimes
victory, sometimes defeat. But hope was never lost, since we remained
here in reserve. We live here on the edge of the world, the last of the free,
protected by our remoteness and seclusion. Now, even these ends of
Britain are exposed to our enemies. Beyond us there is nothing - no
nations - only rocks and waves. And do not think that surrender or good
behaviour will satisfy the Romans. They pillage the world, ruin it by their
wholesale plundering. A rich enemy provokes their greed, a poor one
their desire for power. Neither East nor West satisfies them. They rob,
they slaughter, they plunder and call it governing. They create a desert
and call it peace.’
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‘It is natural for a man to feel a special love for his children and relatives.
But they are being snatched to be slaves in other lands. Rape or seduction is
the fate awaiting our wives and sisters. Roman taxation eats up our goods
and money. The produce of our lands is taken to fill their granaries. We
have crippled hands and broken limbs from building roads for the Romans
through our forests and swamps. Most slaves are sold once, then fed by
their masters. For us every day brings a renewing of our slavery. We pay
the slave-price and feed our masters. Just as in any house with slaves the
most recent arrival is regarded with contempt, so we, the newest slaves, will
be destroyed by those other nations who have long been slaves. If we had
fertile lands or harbours or mines, we might be spared to work in them. But
we have none. Our bravery and our warlike spirit will only serve to
antagonise our new masters. Our remoteness will not help since the Romans
will regard such seclusion as an opportunity for plotting against them.
Mercy is not an option. We must, therefore, fight for what is precious - life
and honour. The Brigantes, led by a woman, destroyed a Roman colony and
a camp. If they had not relaxed after such successes, they might now be
free. We, who have known oppression, will fight to defend our freedom not
to gain revenge for the injustices of the past. Let us show the world, when
the battle begins, the true quality of Caledonia’s warriors.’
‘It is not that the Romans’ courage in war matches their love of debauchery
in peace? Their success comes from our quarrels and the lack of a unified
response. The greatness of the Roman army is built on the mistakes of its
enemies. It is a mongrel band of different races which will be as surely
shattered by defeat as it is held together now by success. Does anyone
believe those Gauls, Germans or, shamefully, the Britons who now fight for
the Romans do so through loyalty or affection? Whatever they do now, they
were Rome’s bitterest enemies for longer than they have been her slaves.
Loyalty is not built on terror and intimidation. Under our challenge fear will
soon turn to hatred.’
‘We have everything we need to spur our men to victory. The Romans have
no wives to inspire their bravery, no parents to rebuke them if they flee.
Most do not even have a motherland they can recall. They are few,
frightened and scared by the strangeness of the sea, sky and forests which
surround them. It is the gods who have delivered them, like prisoners, into
our hands. Ignore the gold and silver of their armour. These can not harm us
or protect them. And within their own army there are those who will help us.
The Britons will see that our cause is the cause of all Britons. The Gauls
will remember their lost freedom. The Germans will desert them as the
Usipi recently did. And beyond this there is nothing to fear - empty forts,
colonies of old men, towns divided between rebellious subjects and cruel
masters. The choice is yours. Either follow me into battle or submit to
taxation, to labour in the mines and all the trials of slavery. This battle will
decide whether we must endure these forever or gain our revenge. To battle,
then, remembering not only your ancestors but your descendants too.’
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Questions
1. Given that there were, according to Tacitus, 30,000 men in the tribal army, do you
think that this speech was ever delivered?
2. Many of the ideas and views in the speech seem Roman. Can you find any 2
points made by Calgacus which are taken from a Roman lifestyle?
3. What are the main points Calgacus makes when he speaks of the greed of the
Romans and its effect on their subjects?
4. What are the strengths he mentions in the tribes’ army?
5. What weaknesses of the Romans does he mention? Are these real weaknesses?
6. Do you think if you hear a speech like this you would be stirred up to fight against
an invading army?
Tacitus’ version of the battle perhaps owes more to dramatic invention than to the
reality, but there is no doubt that, as so often before, the military skills of the Romans
were superior to those of a numerically greater enemy. After this, although the tribes
outwith Roman control remained a threat periodically, the Roman-British were able to
enjoy a long period of peace.
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III. ROMANISATION
Tacitus suggests that the Romans started to introduce the British tribes to their way of
life during Agricola’s governorship. It was probably a much more gradual process.
Some British tribal chiefs made peace with the Romans to guarantee their own
security though this sometimes, as in the case of Prastagus and the Iceni, proved a
brutal friendship. Others may have genuinely admired the Romans and regarded their
civilisation as superior to that of the British tribes.
Read the following extract and answer the questions that follow:
Tacitus, Agricola 14
‘Certain tribal areas were given to King Cogidubnus - he in fact remained
totally loyal down to our times - in accordance with the Roman People’s
old and long-standing policy of making even kings their agents in
enslaving peoples.’
Questions
1. Cogidubnus full name and titles were Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus, King and
Legate of Augustus in Britain. What do these tell us about him?
2. Tacitus describes him as ‘totally loyal’ to the Romans. Does he seem to have
much admiration for the king?
3. Do you think that people like Cogidubnus were traitors? Give reasons for your
answer.
4. Tacitus uses the phrase ‘in enslaving peoples.’ Were Cogidubnus’ tribesmen
worse off than before?
The same historian, in a typically emotive passage, describes the Romanisation of
Southern Britain.
Tacitus, Agricola 21
‘The next winter was spent in trying to change society for the better. The
people with whom Agricola had to deal were from isolated communities
full of ignorance and belligerence. Agricola wanted to provide sufficient
facilities to get them used to living peacefully and quietly. And so he
privately encouraged and publicly assisted in the building of temples,
market squares and houses. Although he rebuked the slothful, he did not
turn to compulsion since he found that praising the energetic and
encouraging them to compete for honour was more effective.
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Moreover, he provided a liberal education for the sons of chiefs, and stated
that he preferred the natural British ability to the artificial skills of the
Gauls. By doing this he ensured that the Britons became keen to speak
Latin well instead of loathing it. The Britons also began to wear the toga.
By such methods they were gradually seduced and had their spirits broken
by colonnades, baths and expensive dinner parties. The Britons,
suspecting nothing, called these changes “civilisation”. The truth was that
they were part of their enslavement.’
Questions
5. Name 5 ways in which Roman culture was spread among the Britons. Which of
these do you think was most effective?
6. An inscription, found in the forum at Verulamium (St Albans) bearing Agricola’s
name, has been dated to 79 AD. Do you think this is a more reliable piece of
evidence than Tacitus’ account?
7. Do you think it unusual that a Roman historian uses a word like ‘enslavement’ to
describe the process of Romanisation? Is there any other similar phrase in the
passage?
8. One feature of Romanisation was urbanisation. What advantages for British
society did the creation of towns bring?
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IV. LIFE IN A ROMAN-BRITISH TOWN
The details of your answers in this section will vary depending on what town you
study but, as a general rule, your study should focus on the following areas:
1. What types of evidence are available on the Roman town you are studying?
2. Did the town have a wall? When was it built? Was it really necessary all the time
or just during times of trouble? When were those times?
3. What was housing like in the town? How do the houses then compare with houses
today? How were the houses then decorated?
4. What can be found out about fashion at this time? Your answer should cover
clothes, hairstyles and jewellery.
5. What sort of work was available in the town? What were the shops like?
6. How was the town run? Did it have a council? How was it elected? Were all
houses run in the same way?
7. How important were religious practices in the life of the town? Was there only
one religion or a number of different religions?
8. What types of entertainment were available to the inhabitants of this town? Which
of these was the most popular?
9. Did the town have a water supply? How did it get its water? Did it have sewers?
Did it have public baths?
10. Why did the Romans eventually leave Britain? What elements of Roman culture
still influence our lives today?
11. Imagine you are being asked to promote the Roman town you have studied to raise
public interest in Roman Britain. What steps would you take?
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