Biology 210 Final Exam Study Guide
1. The statement “function always reflects structure” pretty much defines:
2. Know the hierarchy of structural organization and the definitions of things like cells, tissues,
organs, and organ systems.
3. What is the primary mechanism by which the body maintains homeostasis?
4. Know about serous membranes, what they are, where they are, what their structure is.
5. What is the difference between an ionic bond and a covalent bond?
6. Will an ionic bond break easily in water? Will a covalent bond do the same thing?
7. What are hydrogen bonds? Are they individually strong? How are electrons and charge
distributed between the atoms that share a hydrogen bond?
8. What is a polar molecule? Is water polar?
9. What effect does hydrogen bonding between water molecules have on water’s heat of
vaporization, ability to absorb and hold heat, solvent properties, cohesiveness and
adhesiveness?
10. What is the difference between an acid and a base?
11. What is a buffer? How do buffers work?
12. What is pH? What do the numbers 7.0, > 7.0, and < 7.0 mean with regard to pH?
13. What are the subunits of proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids?
14. Why are lipids insoluble in water?
15. What is the bond that links amino acids into long chains?
16. What does protein denaturation mean? What are the effects of denaturation on a protein? Is
it reversible? What kinds of things can cause protein denaturation?
17. What are the levels of protein structure?
18. What is an enzyme?
19. What are the differences between DNA and RNA?
20. What is ATP and why is it important?
21. Describe the plasma membrane with regard to phospholipids, bilayers, proteins, what cholesterol
is doing in there, whether it is a double membrane or a bilayer, and its permeability
characteristics.
22. Recognize the difference between active and passive transport with regard to energy
requirements and movement up (against) or down (with) a concentration gradient.
23. What does the sodium potassium pump do? What does it require to function? (ATP)
24. Define diffusion, facilitated diffusion, secondary active transport, pinocytosis, phagocytosis,
receptor-mediated endocytosis, and exocytosis.
25. What is osmosis? Is it active or passive transport? Is it the primary mechanism by which water
moves across cell membranes? (You bet)
26. Compare and contrast the characteristics of connective tissue and epithelial tissue.
27. What does collagen provide? (strength) What does elastin provide? (elasticity)
28. What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?
29. What is the difference between apocrine, merocrine, and holocrine glands?
30. What do suderiferous glands secrete? What do sebaceous glands secrete?
31. Understand the concept of isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions and how they cause
water movement.
32. Know the functions of rRNA (ribosomal), mRNA (messenger), and tRNA (transfer).
33. What things contribute to skin coloring? Which is produced in the skin? What kind of cells
produce it?
34. What is cornified epithelium?
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35. Know where translation, transcription, and DNA replication occur. Also be clear on the difference
between protein synthesis and DNA synthesis. Probably better know semi-conservative
replication, recognize the enzymes involved in both processes, the bonding between bases
rules, and the general order in which the steps occur. Maybe even the difference between
leading and lagging strand and what Okazaki fragments are.
36. Better know what chondroblasts, chondrocytes, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoblasts, fibroblasts,
and hemocytoblasts are and do.
37. What are the characteristics of cartilage?
38. What are the functions of bones?
39. Know where in a long bone you would find the diaphysis, epiphysis, medullary cavity, articular
cartilage, spongy bone, compact bone, and red and yellow marrow.
40. Where does hematopoiesis occur (with regards to marrow type)? Where do you find red
marrow in adults (primarily)?
41. What is a haversian system? What is an osteon? What is osteoid (NOT a type of bone)?
42. What are canaliculi, lacunae, Volkmann’s canals, and central canals? Which of these have blood
vessels and nerves?
43. How are joints classified functionally?
44. What are the general characteristics of all synovial joints? What do some synovial joints have
that others do not?
45. What things influence joint stability?
46. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction?
47. How does calcium contribute to muscle contraction?
48. What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
49. What are T-tubules?
50. What is a triad?
51. Of course recognize the structure of sarcomeres, myofibrils, muscle cells (fibers), fasicles, and
muscles.
52. Know what tropomyosin, troponin, and titin do.
53. I don’t even need to mention actin and myosin do I?
54. After stimulation of a skeletal muscle cell has ceased what happens to intracellular (cytoplasmic)
calcium?
55. What is the latent phase of muscle contraction? What is the refractory phase?
56. What is muscle tone?
57. Where do you find intercalated disks?
58. What things are required for skeletal muscle contraction to occur?
59. What is excitation-contraction coupling?
60. What are the functions of the nervous system?
61. What cells make myelin in the PNS? In the CNS?
62. What is the resting membrane potential?
63. What is the difference between chemically regulated and voltage regulated channels?
64. Propagation of an action potential is the result of local current flow opening what kind of Na +
gates where?
65. During the absolute refractory period can a cell be stimulated to generate another action
potential?
66. Why is saltatory conduction faster than conduction in nonmyelinated fibers?
67. What are EPSPs? Are they action potentials? Can they be summed? What are IPSPs? How
do they interact with EPSPs to affect action potential initiation?
68. What does it take to initiate an action potential? And where are these gates or channels
located?
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69. What is the difference between chemical and electrical synapses?
70. How are nerve impulses terminated?
71. What is neuromodulation?
72. What is synaptic potentiation?
73. What is pre-synaptic inhibition? How is that different from postsynaptic inhibition?
74. What are ventricles?
75. What separates the right and left cerebral hemispheres? What connects them?
76. What does the cortex of cerebrum consist of?
77. How are cortical areas classified?
78. Are the cerebral hemispheres symmetrical with respect to structure? How about function?
79. What are the motor areas of the cerebral cortex? Sensory areas? Association areas? What
lobes might they be located in?
80. What is decussation of the pyramids?
81. How are tracts of the cerebral white matter classified?
82. What are the structures that make up the diencephalon? What are their basic functions?
83. What are the 3 parts of the brainstem? What do you find in the midbrain? Pons? Medulla
oblongata?
84. What is the reticular formation?
85. Describe the structure and function of the cerebellum. Is the cortex gray or white?
86. Where is cerebrospinal fluid produced?
87. Describe the structure of the spinal cord: location of gray and white matter, # pairs of spinal
nerves, what roots contain what fibers, and how about those funiculi (white columns)?
88. Where (PNS or CNS) do you find tracts, nerves, ganglia, and nuclei?
89. How are sensory receptors classified?
90. What are nociceptors?
91. What happens when sensory receptors are stimulated? How is stimulus strength encoded?
What is a receptor potential? What is a generator potential? Where does the action potential
come in?
92. Why is it hard to regenerate axons in the CNS?
93. What is the difference between roots and rami?
94. Know the cranial nerves (number, name, function, and what they innervate.
95. Which cranial nerve is the longest?
96. What is a basic reflex? Is it learned or unlearned? Can learned behavior modify a basic
reflex? Is the brain ever involved? How might the brain be involved?
97. What are the components of a reflex arc?
98. How are the somatic and autonomic nervous systems different? Is there sensory input to the
CNS from both branches? What are the effectors innervated by the somatic NS? What are
the effectors innervated by the ANS? How are the efferent (motor) pathways different?
Which has two neuron motor units? Which has heavily myelinated, thick, Type A fibers?
What is the definition of a preganglionic fiber? Are preganglionic fibers myelinated? What is a
postganglionic fiber? Are postganglionic fibers myelinated? What neurotransmitters are
released by the somatic NS? What neurotransmitters are released by the ANS?
99. What are the divisions of the ANS? Which is the resting and digesting division? Which is the
fight or flight division?
100. What are the general functions of the parasympathetic division? Be able to list and/or
recognize some common effects of parasympathetic stimulation. (As opposed to sympathetic
stimulation – they are generally opposite, so keep it straight)
101. What are the general functions of the sympathetic division? Be able to list and/or recognize
some common effects of sympathetic stimulation.
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102. Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions with regard to site of
origin of the fibers (craniosacral division vs. thoracolumbar division), different lengths of fibers
(long or short pre-ganglionic and post-ganglionic fibers), location of ganglia (close to the
organs, close to the spinal column), and neurotransmitters released (by both pre-ganglionic
and post-ganglionic fibers.
103. Why is the adrenal gland considered a part of the sympathetic nervous system? Answer:
because it is innervated by sympathetic pre-ganglionic fibers and releases norepinephrine and
epinephrine in response to stimulation.
104. What NT binds to cholinergic receptors? What NT binds to adrenergic receptors? What are
the types of cholinergic receptors?
105. How is the ANS controlled? What is the primary brain structure that governs autonomic
responses?
106. What are the different brain wave patterns? What do they represent?
107. What is REM sleep? What is NREM sleep?
108. Compare long- and short-term memory. How do you transfer things from short-term memory
to long-term memory?
109. What is the structure of a taste bud? Where are taste buds located?
110. What is the lacrimal apparatus?
111. What are the tunics of the eye?
112. What does the cornea do?
113. What is the ciliary body?
114. What is the function of the iris?
115. Why is there pigmentation inside the eye?
116. What are the sensory cells of the retina? Which are adapted for color vision? Which for dim
light? Which give the greatest clarity?
117. What is the macula lutea? What is the fovea centralis? What is the blind spot?
118. How does the lens accommodate for near vision? For distant vision?
119. What is an emmetropic eye? What is a myopic eye? What is a hyperopic eye? What is the
difference between hyperopia and presbyopia?
120. What are the structures of the outer, middle, and inner ear?
121. How is sound carried from the tympanic membrane to the membranous labyrinth?
122. What are the three major divisions of the bony labyrinth?
123. What is the membranous labyrinth?
124. What is perilymph and where is it found? What about endolymph?
125. What parts of the ear act as an equilibrium receptor?
126. Which part of the inner ear detects and transduces sound into a receptor potential?
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