Казанский государственный университет
Институт языка
Кафедра английского языка
THE MAGIC OF GEOLOGY
Казань - 2008
Печатается по решению
учебно-методической комиссии
кафедры английского языка КГУ
Составители:
старший преподаватель Капустина Э.В.
старший преподаватель Мельникова О.К.
преподаватель Иксанова Г.Р.
Под редакцией профессора Багаутдиновой Г.А.
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Lesson 1
A ROMANTIC SCIENCE
I. Read the following text and say what geology deals with.
The Earth’s crust, the core and the mantle of the Earth. Gravitational action
of heavenly bodies. Colossal blocks, immense faults, and movements of
lithosphere platforms. Mantle flows and magma bursting onto the surface through
volcanic necks.
The richest underground pantries of the planet with the mysterious and
enigmatic caves, swift glacial streams, unique exotic crystals and precious metals,
mountain ways, dangerous stone-falls, crafty rivers, floods, mosquitoes, and heavy
rucksacks, and – a moment of triumph – rare finding, joy of discovery! All this is
geology, the most attractive and romantic of the Earth sciences!
Notes:
core [kɔ:] - ядро
fault [fɔ:lt] - разлом
pantry [´pæntrı] - кладовая
cave [keıv] - пещера
mysterious [mıstıәrıәs] – таинственный
enigmatic [,enıg’mætıc] - загадочный
glacial [’gleısjәl] – ледниковый
precious [’pre∫әs] - драгоценный
crafty [’kræftı] - коварный
rare [rεә] - редкий
immense [ı’mens] - огромный
colossal [kә’lɔsl] - громадный
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II. Match an adjective from column A with a noun in column B.
A
B
1) gravitational
a) faults
2) dangerous
b) blocks
3) heavy
c) streams
4) mysterious
d) caves
5) colossal
e) action
6) unique
f) rucksacks
7) precious
g) crystals
8) immense
h) stone-falls
9) crafty
i) rivers
10) glacial
j) metals
Vocabulary I
III. Be careful to pronounce correctly.
society [sә’saıәtı]
a) ocean [’әu∫n]
Interpret [ın’tә:prıt]
renewable [rı’nju:әbl]
material [mә’tıәrıәl]
depleted [dıp’lı:tıd]
processes [’prәusesız]
although [ɔ:l’ðәu]
surface [’sә:fıs]
expertise [,ekspә:’tı:z]
speciality [,spe∫ı’ælәtı]
monitoring [’mɔnıtәrıŋ]
sciences [’saıәnsız]
contingency [kәn’tindʒәnsı]
sequence [’sı:kwәns]
survey [sә:veı]
interior [ın’tıәrıә]
occur [әkә:]
relevance [’relәvәns]
limited [’lımıtıd]
knowledge [’nɔlıʤ]
pursuit [pәs’ju:t]
industrialized [ın’dΛstrıәlaızd]
b) mine’ralogy, pet’rology, stra’tigrafy, geo’physics, paleon’tology, geo’chemistry,
geomor’phology, geochro’nology, environ’mental ge’ology.
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IV. Study the following words.
sequence (n) - последовательность
successive (adj) - последующий, следующий один за другим
application (n) - применение
fossil(n) - окаменелость
relevance (n) – релевантность, уместность
renewable (adj) - возобновляемый
deplete (v) – исчерпывать, истощать
sophisticated (adj) – сложный, изощренный
expertise (n) – специальные знания, компетентность
ground-water – грунтовая вода
dam (n) - дамба
power plant - электростанция
contingency (n) – непредвиденное обстоятельство
pursuit (n) – поиск, занятие
substitute (n) - заменитель
waste disposal – уничтожение отходов
V. Translate into Russian.
power plants, earthquake-resistance buildings, waste disposal sites, contingency
plans, a wide variety of pursuits, limited resources, underground water pollution,
short-range predictions, long-range predictions, natural disasters, volcanic
eruptions, nonrenewable resources, suitable substitutes, basic principles.
VI. Read the following text and answer the questions.
You will learn about:
Branches of geology and its relation to other sciences, what geologists are
involved in, renewable and non-renewable resources, natural disasters and
contingency plans.
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The science of Geology
Geology, from the Greek geo and logos, is defined as “the study of the
Earth”. It is generally divided into two broad areas – historical geology and
physical geology. Historical geology examines the origin and evolution of the
Earth, its continents, oceans, atmosphere, and life. However, before one can
interpret the Earth’s past, an understanding of physical geology is needed. This
involves the study of Earth materials, such as minerals and rocks, as well as the
processes operating within the Earth and upon its surface.
1. What does historical geology deal with?
2. What is physical geology concerned with?
The discipline of geology is so broad that it is subdivided into many
different fields or specialties. It is related to physics, astronomy, chemistry, and
biology. Some of the specialities of geology are mineralogy, the study of minerals;
petrology, the study of rocks; stratigraphy, the study of the sequence of geologic
events as recorded in successive layers of rock; structural geology, the study of the
deformation of the Earth’s crust; geophysics, the application of physical laws and
principles to the study of the Earth, particularly its interior; paleontology, the study
of fossils; and paleogeography, the study of the Earth’s past geographical features.
1. What does stratigraphy study?
2. Which subdivisions of geology are related to biology?
3. What speciality of geology studies rocks?
4. What’s the English for: географические особенности,
физические законы, геологические события, структурная
геология?
Nearly every aspect of geology has some economic or environmental
relevance, so it is not surprising that many geologists are involved in exploration
for mineral and energy resources. Geologists use their specialized knowledge to
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locate the natural resources on which our industrialized society is based. Such
mineral resources as coal, sand, petroleum, metal, and gravel are non-renewable,
and once known deposits of them are depleted, new deposits or suitable substitutes
must be found. As the world demand for these non-renewable resources increases,
geologists are applying the basic principles of geology in increasingly
sophisticated ways in the search for mineral and energy resources.
1. What resources are called non-renewable?
Although locating mineral and energy resources is extremely important,
geologists are also asked to use their expertise to help solve many of our
environmental problems. Some geologists are involved in finding ground-water for
the needs of communities and industries or in monitoring surface and underground
water pollution and suggesting ways to clean it up. Geological engineering is used
to find safe locations for dams, waste disposal sites, and power plants, as well as to
help design earthquake-resistant buildings. Geologists are also involved in making
short and long-range predictions about earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and the
potential destruction that may result. In addition, they are working with civil
defense planners to help draw up contingency plans should such natural disasters
occur.
1. What environmental problems do geologists help solve?
2. What predictions can geologists make?
As this brief survey illustrates, geologists are employed in a wide variety of
pursuits. As the world’s population increases and greater demands are made on the
Earth’s limited resources, the need for geologists and their expertise will become
even greater.
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VII. Fill in the chart of the subdivisions of geology. There is one extra word
which you do not need to use.
economic
geology,
oceanography,
seismology,
environmental
structural
geochemistry,
geology,
geology,
geophysics,
stratigraphy,
mineralogy,
geomorphology,
petrology,
paleography,
paleontology,
glacial
geology,
geochronology
2. ________________________
the Earth’s interior
1.___SEISMOLOGY____
earthquakes
3. _______________________
landscape formation and
interpretation
4. ____________________________
geology of chemical change
5. _______________________
rocks
6. ________________________
minerals
7. _______________________
fossils
8. ________________________
origin and interpretation of
layered rocks
9._______________________
mineral and energy resources
10. _______________________
glaciers
11. _______________________
rock deformation
12. _______________________
problems of the environment
13. _______________________
time and the history of the Earth
14. _______________________
ocean floor
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VIII. Give the summary of the text. Use the following phrases:
The text deals with…
Basically…
It’s well known that…
The next point is that…
According to the text…
To sum it up…
It is pointed out that…
Finally…
Broadly speaking…
Lesson 2
DOING GEOLOGY
Vocabulary I
I. Read the following words:
a) degree [dı’grı:]
chemistry [’kemıstrı]
career [kә’rıә]
regional [’rı:ʤәnl]
provide [prә’vaıd]
graduate [’græʤuәt]
unique [ju’nı:k]
taught [tɔ:t]
submit [sәb’mıt]
marketing [’ma:kәtıη]
research [rı’sз:t∫]
foreign [’fɔrın]
concerned [kәn’sә:nd]
earthquake [’ә:θkweık]
disciple [dı’saıpl]
empties [’emptıtız]
geodesy [ʤı’ɔdısı]
company [’kΛmpәnı]
resources [rı’sɔ:sız]
candidate [’kændıdәt]
laboratory [lә’bɔrәtrı]
b) contribution, contamination, mineralogy, opportunities, eruption, observatory,
landslides, promising
II. Read the words and determine the parts of speech. Mind the stress.
1. contribution - contribute
2. mineralogy – mineralogical - mineralogist
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3. philosophy – philosopher - philosophical
4. graduate – undergraduate - postgraduate
5. chemistry – chemical - chemist
6. geophysics – geophysical - geophysicist
7. geology – geological - geologist
III. Read the text and complete the chart.
Date of
foundation
Departments
____________
____________
____________
____________
______
Research
problems
____________
____________
____________
______
Career
prospects
____________
____________
____________
_____
____________
____________
The Faculty of
Geology
Equipment
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
_
Famous
scientists
____________
____________
____________
Subjects taught
a) special
____________
____________
b) other
____________
_
The study
____
process__________
____________
____________
____________
_
The Faculty of Geology
Geology has been studied at Kazan State University nearly since the date of
its foundation. The first lectures on mineralogy were read by professor K. F. Fuchs
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in 1805. A great contribution to the geological science was made by professor N.A.
Golovkinsky (the founder of the facies theory) and his disciples A.A. Shtukenberg,
P.T. Krotov, A.V. Cherdintsev.
At present the Faculty of Geology has several departments, i.e. The
Department of General Geology and Hydrogeology, The Department of
Mineralogy and Petrography, The Department of Regional Geology, The
Department of Historical Geology and Paleontology, The Department of Mineral
Resources and Prospecting, The Department Geophysical methods of Prospecting
for Natural Resources and the Department of Oil and Gas.
The Faculty has a number of up-to-date research and educational
laboratories, a magnetic observatory and a unique geological and mineralogical
museum.
All students study full time. The course lasts for five years. Students are
taught general geology, geodesy, paleontology, mineralogy, structural geology,
higher mathematics, physics, chemistry as well as philosophy, business and
marketing, law, information systems and foreign languages. One can study
English, German or French.
After each semester students take examinations. They also write their project
work.
As field-work is important in geological training; undergraduates take
regular field-study courses, both in the Volga Region and other parts of the country
and submit a report based on their own work.
Research at the Faculty is devoted to the study of earthquakes, landslides,
floods and volcanic eruptions. The research school is also concerned with physics
of minerals, contemporary methods of prospecting, carst empties and ground water
contamination.
There are promising career opportunities for geologists. While some
graduates work for oil or mining companies, others work in geological parties and
geological administrations. The Faculty provides a few post-graduate courses.
Post-graduate students do research towards a Candidate of Science Degree.
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IV. Answer the questions.
1) When was the Geological Faculty founded?
2) What famous scientists worked at the Faculty?
3) What departments can you name?
4) How is the study process organized?
5) How is field-work organized?
6) In what areas can the graduates find a job?
7) What can you say about research at the Faculty?
8) Are geology students offered courses in foreign languages?
V. Translate into English.
научная работа, физика минералов, загрязнение грунтовых вод, извержения
вулканов, оползни, землетрясение, карстовые пустоты, современные методы
разведки, многообещающие возможности, работать в нефтяной компании,
аспирантура, представить отчёт, научно-исследовательская лаборатория,
уникальный
геолого-минералогический
музей,
учиться
на
дневном
отделении, большой вклад, ученик.
VI. Translate into Russian.
1. Minerals and rocks are studied with the use of the most up-to-date
equipment and the latest methods of contemporary physics.
2. Students are offered lectures and workshops on basics of environmental
geology.
3. The Department has several educational and research laboratories, e.g.
lithological, x-ray, optional spectroscopy, radio spectroscopy (EPR, NMR),
etc.
4. Research is devoted to the study of crystallogenesis, lithology and
mineralogy of oil-bearing rocks.
5. Majors are offered in Geology and Geochemistry of fossil fuels.
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6. Lectures are delivered on geochemistry of oil and gas, exploration of oil and
gas fields, methods of prospecting for oil and gas deposits and computer
modeling of oil and geological systems.
7. Basic areas of research are the study of petrography of the Permian bitumen
deposits, migration of oil, investigation of the Devonian and Carboniferous
geological periods.
8. The staff and undergraduates are involved in intensive research.
9. The staff contributed greatly to the study of the new oil deposits.
10. All kinds of research, from fundamental to applied are being fulfilled at the
department, with the emphasis on magnetic stratigraphy, paleomagnetism,
electrical and seismic methods in oil wells and physical properties of
sedimentary rocks.
VII. Answer the questions. Use the following words and phrases. Use
underlined phrases from the previous exercise.
(I’m a second-year student of the Faculty of Geology, I’m in my second year,
Professor, associate professor, a number of up-to-date researches and educational
laboratories, I’m going to take a post-graduate course, I would like to work for an
international oil company, I would like to start my own business, I would like to
become a research professor, my research deals with, I’m interested in, I’m going
to do my master’s degree)
1. Where do you study?
2. What department do you belong to?
3. Who is the head of your department?
4. Who is the Dean of the Faculty?
5. What subjects do you study? What subjects are mandatory? What subjects
are optional?
6. What exams are you going to take at the end of the semester?
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7. Does your department organise field-works for second-year students? Does
it organise industrial practice?
8. Is the Faculty well-equipped?
9. What are basic trends of research on your department?
10. Are you interested in research? Are you doing a project? What’s the object
of your research? What’s the subject of your research? Do you use English
for your research?
11. What are your plans for the long-term future?
Vocabulary II
I. Be careful to pronounce correctly.
gem [ʤәm]
a) facies [’feısız]
exhibit [ıg’zıbıt]
admiration [‚ædmә’reı∫n]
evoke [ı’vouk]
acquisition [‚ækwı’zı∫n]
variety [vә’raıәtı]
valuable [’væljuәbl]
diversity [daı’vә:sıtı]
meteorite [’mı:tıәraıt]
rasity [’rεәrәtı]
exhibition [‚eksı’bı∫n]
druse [dru:z]
b) fluoraite [’fluәraıt]
diamond [’daıәmәnd]
spinel [spı’nel]
sapphire [’sæfaıә]
ruby [’ru:bı]
agate [’ægәt]
malachite [’mælәkaıt]
marble [ma:bl]
emerald [’emәrәld]
alexandrite [‚ælıg’zændraıt]
II. Study the following words.
acquisition (n) - приобретение
acquire (v) - приобретать
facies (n) - фации
exhibit (n)- экспонат
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exhibit (v) - показывать, экспонировать, выставлять
exhibition (n) - выставка
diversity (n) - разнообразие, многообразие
diverse (adj)- различный, разный
variety (n) - разнообразие
various (adj) - различный
rarity (n) - редкий экспонат, раритет
druse (n) - друза
fluorite (n) = fluor spar - плавиковый шпат
spinel ruby - шпинелевый рубин
gem (n) - драгоценный камень, самоцвет.
III. Say the following words in English. Mind the pronunciation.
рубин, малахит, мрамор, агат, александрит, сапфир, алмаз, изумруд
IV. Read the text and complete the following sentences.
1. The museum of Geology and mineralogy of Kazan State University is one
of the __________________________________________.
2. It dates back to ___________________________.
3. The first acquisition was ____________________________.
4. Nowadays, the museum has _____ sections, such as___________________.
5. Mineralogy section _____________________________________________.
6. There are a lot of _________________________________ among minerals.
7. _____________ is quite a rarity nowadays, because ___________________.
8. The Gem Collection displays ____________________________________.
9. The museum _____________ the copy of the biggest diamond in the world.
10. There is also a display of ______________________________________.
11. A big ‘hill’ formed by gem stones _______________________________.
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The Stukenberg museum of Geology and mineralogy of Kazan State
University is one of the oldest richest natural science museums in the Russian
Federation. It was founded in 1804, when the University Charter was signed. The
first acquisition was the collection of minerals of Prince Potyomkin-Tavrichesky.
The contemporary store of the museum implies six main sections, such as
ores, minerals and petrography; paleontology; dynamic geology and facies;
monographic collections; mineral products of Tatarstan; the history of the museum.
The set of meteorite fragments exhibited in the Mineralogy section is
especially valuable. The collection began with Okhan meteorite, which had fallen
in Perm province on August 30, 1887.
The mineral collections represent all the diversity and variety of chemical
compounds. There are a lot of rarities among the minerals, such as fluorite druse
from Cumberland deposit (Great Britain) or iron spinel crystal of 21 kg weight
from the mines of the Urals. The collection of the Urals malachites is quite a rarity
nowadays as the minerals were extracted in the XIX century in deposits, which
have been completely worked out.
The Gem Collection demonstrates all groups of industrial raw materials,
including diamonds. emeralds, sapphires, rubies, alexandrites, etc. The museum
exhibits the copy of the biggest diamond in the world “Culinan” as well as the
glass imitations of such big diamonds as “Shakh”, “Orlov” and others. There is
also a display of boxes, vases and bowls made of malachite, agate and marble. A
big “hill” formed by more than one hundred gem stones from the Urals evokes
great admiration of the visitors.
V. Prepare a guide presentation for the museum. Use the phrases below.
We are now standing outside the main entrance to; we are going to visit; the
museum was opened in; the museum houses exhibits of; there are also displays
devoted to; entrance to the museum is free (costs …); please note that photography
is not allowed; the museum closes at; does anyone have any questions?
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Lesson 3
IDENTIFICATION OF A MINERAL
I. Practice saying these words.
smooth [smu:θ]
a) luster [’lΛstә]
hardness [’ha:dnәs]
surface [’sә:fıs]
tarnish [’ta:nı∫]
curved [kә:vd]
rough [rΛf]
definite [’defınıt]
sulfide [’sulfaıd]
crystal [’krıstl]
substance [’sΛbstәns]
cleavage [’klı:vıʤ]
hackly [’hæklı]
relative [’relәtıv]
ratio [’reı∫ıәu]
measure [’meʒә]
microscope [’maıkrәskәup]
symmetry [’sımәtrı]
accurately [’ækjurәtlı]
oxide [’ɔksaıd]
fairly [’fεәlı]
crystalline [’krıstәlaın]
gravity [’grævıtı]
b) resistance [rә’zıstәns]
diagnostic [‚daıә’gnɔstık]
conchoidal [kɔŋ’kɔıdl]
fluorescence [‚flɔ:’resns]
distinct [dıs’tınkt]
determine [dı’tә:mın]
unaltered [Λn’ɔ:ltıd]
estimations [‚estı’meı∫nz]
impurity [ım’pju:rıtı]
identification [aı‚dentıfı’keı∫n]
transparent [træns’pærәnt]
irregularities [ı‚regju’lærıtız]
II. Practice saying the following minerals.
talc [tælk]
fluorite [’fluәraıt]
quarts [kwɔ:ts]
gypsum [’ʤıpsәm]
apatite [’æpәtaıt]
feldspar [’feldspa:]
calcite [’kælsaıt]
orthoclase [’ɔ:θәkleıs]
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III. Study the following words.
luster (n) – блеск
hardness (n) - твердость
cleavage (n) – слоистость, спайность, кливаж
cleavage plane – плоскость кливажа
specific gravity – удельный вес
solubility (n) - растворимость
fracture (n) - разлом
crystal faces – кристаллические решетки
hackly (adj) – шероховатый, зазубренный
transparent (adj) - прозрачный
tarnish (v) - тускнеть
opaque (adj) – непрозрачный, матовый, без блеска
scale (n) - шкала
effervescence (n) – выделение пузырьков газа, шипение
flint (n) – кремень
IV. Read the following text and answer the questions.Write down the types of:
cleavage 1)____________ 2) _____________3) ____________4)_____________
fracture 1)____________ 2) _____________3) ____________4)_____________
luster
1)____________ 2) _____________3) ____________4)_____________
Write the translation of underlined words.
General Physical Properties
The physical properties include such things as colors, luster, hardness, weight
(specific gravity), crystal form, taste, fluorescence, solubility, cleavage,
magnetism, radioactivity and many more.
Hardness
Hardness of a mineral is its resistance to scratching. It is measured by Mohs’
scale which consists of 10 minerals: 1. Talc (the softest mineral) 2. Gypsum. 3.
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Calcite. 4. Fluorite. 5. Apatite. 6. Orthoclase. 7. Quarts. 8. Topaz. 9. Corundum.
10. Diamond (the hardness mineral). The steps are reasonably equal except that the
step between corundum and diamond is very large. Hardness is an important
property of a mineral and is of great value in identification.
Cleavage
Many minerals split easily in certain regular directions and yield smooth
plane surfaces called cleavage planes. These directions are parallel to definite
crystal faces. Perfect, good, distinct and imperfect are terms used to describe
cleavage. Mica, for example, has a perfect cleavage and can be split into thin
planes. Feldspars have two sets of good cleavage planes.
Fracture
Any irregular break is termed as fracture. It is independent of cleavage. Fresh
facture shows the true colour of a mineral. Fracture is described as conchoidal,
when the mineral breaks with a curved surface, e.g. in quarts and flint; as even
when it is nearly flat; as uneven when it is rough; and as hackly when the surface
carries small sharp irregularities. Most minerals show uneven fracture.
1. What properties of minerals do you know?
2. What is cleavage?
3. What can you say about hardness?
4. What is fracture?
Lustre
Lustre is the way a mineral reflects light, the two main types of lustre are
metallic and non-metallic. A few minerals fall in between and are sometimes called
submetallic. Metallic luster is the luster of metals, most sulphides and some oxides,
all of which are opaque. Non-metallic luster is the lustre of minerals that are
transparent on their thin edges and in general of light colour.
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Colour
Colour is one of the most important properties of minerals. Strictly speaking,
colour is the colour of a fresh, unaltered surface, although in some cases, the
tarnished colour may help in identification. For some minerals colour is diagnostic,
but many, such as quarts, may have almost any colour due to slight impurities.
Specific gravity
Specific gravity is a measure of the relative weight of substance. It is the ratio
of the mass of substance to the mass of an equal volume of water. It is measured by
weighing the substance in air and in water.
Specific gravity =
weighting air
weighting – weighting water
Estimations of specific gravity can be made fairly accurately. It is of help in
identification, especially with the very heavy minerals. The density of a substance
is its mass per unit volume; when expressed in grams per cubic centimeter, density
is numerically equal to specific gravity.
1. Give the definition of luster.
2. Can the tarnished colour help in identification of a mineral?
3. What is specific gravity? Can it be measured accurately?
4. What is density?
Crystal forms
All crystalline substances crystallize in one of six crystal systems. If the
mineral grows in unrestricted space if develops the external shape of its crystal
form. If it cannot grow its external shape, its crystalline nature can be determined
only under the microscope or by x-ray analysis. The system can be determined by
the symmetry of the crystals.
Taste and solubility
Taste and solubility can be determined by touching the specimen with a
tongue. A solvable mineral will have the feel of a lump of sugar, and an insolvable
20
mineral may full like glass. Reaction with dilute hydrochloric and is another
solubility test. Calcite will react, producing effervescence. Dolomite must be
powdered to increase the surface area before effervescence occurs. Dolomite will
also react with hot dilute acid or with strong acid, both of which also increase the
rate of chemical reaction. Other physical properties may require specific equipment
to test. Examples are: radioactivity (Geige counter); magnetism (magnet);
fluorescence (ultraviolet lights).
1. How can we determine the crystalline nature of a mineral?
2. How can we determine solubility of a mineral?
3. Which physical properties of a mineral require specific equipment to
test?
V. Form derivatives with the following prefixes: im, un, ir, non.
regular –
soluble –
regularity –
distinct –
purity –
perfect –
restricted –
definite –
altered –
even –
accurately –
important –
metallic –
reasonable –
equal -
VI. Choose the correct word.
1. Hardness is an (important/unimportant) property of a mineral.
2. Many minerals split easily in certain (regular/irregular) directions.
3. Feldspar has two sets of (perfect/good) cleavage.
4. Mica has (a perfect/an imperfect) cleavage.
5. Any (regular/irregular) break is termed fracture.
6. Fracture is described as (even/uneven) when it is rough.
21
7. Most sulphides have (metallic/non-metallic) luster.
8. Fracture is described as (even/uneven) when it is nearly flat.
9. The colour of (altered/unaltered) surface is most important in identification
of a mineral.
10. (A soluble/an insoluble) mineral feels like glass.
11. If a mineral grows in (restricted/unrestricted) space, it develops the
external shape of its crystal form.
12. (A soluble/an insoluble) mineral feels like a lump of sugar.
13. Density is numerically (equal/unequal) to specific gravity.
VII. Translate the following groups of words into English.
плотность породы, обломок породы, свойства пород, поверхность минерала,
различия в цвете, в плотности, в спайности, иметь тенденцию, состоит из,
сопротивление, самый твердый минерал, важное свойство минерала,
кристаллическая решетка, не прозрачный, плоскость кливажа, удельный вес,
блеск, растворимость, отражает свет, строго говоря, вследствие, благодаря,
равный объем, взвешивать, довольно точно, определять, ограниченное
пространство, образец, кусок сахара, нерастворимый.
VIII. Translate into Russian.
1. earth crust density examination
2. the present day geology development
3. the earth interior temperature encase
4. the geological data application
5. mineral cleavage
IX. Say these sentences in English.
1. Земная кора сложена разнообразными породами.
2. Эти породы отличаются цветом, спайностью, плотностью и другими
особенностями.
22
3. Отдельные частицы пород являются однородными (homogeneous)
веществами,
характеризующимися
определенными
физическими
и
химическими свойствами.
4. Они могут быть твердыми, прозрачными или тусклыми.
5. Если мы знаем наиболее важные физические свойства минералов, мы
легко можем их распознать.
6. Такими свойствами являются: твердость, спайность, излом, цвет, блеск,
удельный вес и другие.
X. Make a mind map of the text and speak about the most important qualities
of minerals. Use the following phases:
The subject of the text is …
The text deals with …
It is pointed out that …
Basically …
It should be stressed that …
Finally…
Vocabulary II
I. Practice saying these words.
a)
Aries [’εәrı:z]
Libra [’lı:brә]
Taurus [’tɔ:rәs]
Scorpio [’skɔ:pıәu]
Gemini [’ʤemınaı]
Capricorn [’kæprıkɔ:n]
Cancer [’kænsә]
Aquarius [ә’kwεәrıәs]
Leo [’lıәu]
Sagittarius [‚sæʤı’tεәrıәs]
Virgo [’vә:gәu]
Fishes [’fı∫ı:z] (Pisces [’paısı:z])
b)
Mars [ma:z]
Venus [’vı:nәs]
23
Moon [mu:n]
Mercury [’mә:kjәrı]
Saturn [’sætә:n]
Jupiter [’ʤu:pıtә]
c)
agate [’ægәt]
alexandrite [‚ælıg’zændraıt]
amethyst [’æmıθıst]
aquamarine [‚ækwәmә’rı:n]
jasper [’ʤæspә]
pearls [’pә:lz]
malachite [’mælәkaıt]
topaz [’tәupæz]
chalcedony [kæl’sedәnı]
chrysoprase [’krısәpreız]
nephrite [’nefraıt]
amazonite [’æmәznaıt]
hematite [’hemәtaıt]
turquoise [’tә:kwa:z]
emerald [’emәrәld]
onyx [’ɔnıks]
sapphire [’sæfaıә]
obsidian [’әbsıdıәn]
ruby [’ru:bı]
carnelian [kә’nı:ljәn]
II. Study the following words.
Sings of Zodiac - знаки зодиака
Aries – Овен
Leo - Лев
Sagittarius - Стрелец
Taurus - Телец
Virgo - Дева
Capricorn - Козерог
Gemini - Близнецы
Libra - Весы
Aquarius - Водолей
Cancer - Рак
Scorpio - Скорпион
Fishes (Pisces) – Рыбы
Gem-stones – драгоценные камни
jasper - яшма
nephrite - нефрит
chalcedony - халцедон
turquoise - бирюза
hematite – красный железняк
obsidian – обсидиан (вулканическое
chrysoprase - хризопраз
стекло)
carnelian - сердолик
pearls - жемчуг
24
onyx - оникс
inaccessible - недоступный
constellation - созвездие
curative - лечебный
III. Answer the following questions. Use some of these phrases.
As far as I know; I’ve no doubt that; honestly; Not really; basically; my feeling is
that; As I see it; as far as I remember; Frankly speaking
1. When were you born?
2. What is your sign of Zodiac?
3. What is your best friend’s sign of Zodiac?
4. Do you believe that our personal qualities depend on the month of birth?
5. What are your favourite gems-stones?
6. Do you believe in astral or curative properties of minerals?
7. What precious stones are displayed in the Geology museum of your
University?
IV. Read the text and make up the title.
Since ancient times people considered gems as magic and dynamic
substances, which can protect from evil, gain somebody’s favour, serve as amulets
and talismans. Thus, gem-stones are connected with signs of Zodiac. Here you can
see one of the tables where gems correspond to Zodiac constellations and planets.
Aries (mars) – agate, amethyst, lazurite, mountain, crystal, jasper.
Taurus (Venus) – agate, turquoise, carnelian, rose quarts.
Gemini (Mercury) – tiger’s eye, malachite, chalcedony.
Cancer (Moon) – aventurine, chrysoprase, chalcedony.
Leo (Sun) – mountain crystal, hematite, rodonite.
Libra (Venus) – topaz, amazonite, carnelian.
Scorpion (Mars) – turquoise, malachite aquamarine, coral.
Capricorn (Saturn) – onyx, cat’s eye, obsidian, mountain crystal.
25
Sagittarius (Jupiter) – amethyst, topaz.
In general one can understand our ancestors. Without knowledge and right
remedies for illnesses they had to hope for a lucky chance, talisman and protecting
amulets. Precious stones were considered to be magic because they were
inaccessible for poor people. However, even Biruni was definitely opposed to any
connections between heavenly bodies and stones, ironically speaking about belief
in astral or curative properties of minerals.
V. Write down the gems for the following signs of Zodiac.
Водолей (Сатурн) – аметист, бирюза, яшма.
Рыбы (Юпитер) – аметист, жемчуг, сердолик, лазурит.
VI. Make one word from these letters.
e.g.,
n, y, x, o – onyx
p, a, r, j, e, s –
i, a, n, d, m, o, d –
e, a, p, l, r –
n, r, a, c, l, I, e, n, a –
t, l, r, c, s, a, y –
r, o, u, e, t, u, q, i, s –
VII. Give the summary of the text and express your opinion. Use the following
words and phrases.
According to the text …
Interestingly, …
It’s pointed out that …
Obviously, …
It’s well known that …
Presumably, …
Many people said that …
Personally, I think …
It’s often said that …
As I see it …
As far as I am concerned …
I agree on the whole …
Basically, …
I disagree entirely …
26
Lesson 4
BLACK GOLD
I. Answer the questions.
1) What hydrocarbons do you know?
2) What do you know about oil?
3) How important is oil?
Vocabulary I
II. Practise saying these words.
upper [’Λpә]
fertilizer [’fз:tılaızә]
stratum [’stra:tәm]
pesticide [’pestısaıd]
strata (pl) [’stra:tә]
process [’prәuses]
area [’eәriә]
deposit [dı’pɔzıt]
hydrocarbons [‚haıdrә’ka:bәnz]
reserve [rı’zз:v]
series [’sıәrı:z]
convert [kәn’vз:t]
fuel [’fju:әl]
petroleum [pә’trәuliәm]
gasoline [’gæsәlı:n]
flammable [’flæmәbl]
solvent [’sɔlvәnt]
III. Translate into Russian without a dictionary.
mixture, chemical products, plastic, resources, black gold, complex mixture of
hydrocarbons, alkane series, oil field, naturally, microscopic plankton organism,
leading producers, principle methods, petroleum prospect
IV. a) Complete the table.
verb
noun
adjective
processed
appearance
27
produce
compose
deposition
occur
b) Define the part of speech of the words below. Write the words they are
derived from.
incompletely –
usually –
naturally –
principally –
relatively –
initially –
largely –
finally –
colloquially –
conclusively –
mostly –
c) Make up adverbs from these adjectives.
scientific –
different –
relative –
new –
increasing –
national –
main –
technological –
basic –
exact –
final –
chief –
V. Read the names of the countries below. Which of them are oil producers?
Make up adjectives from these geographical names using the table below.
Russia, Tatarstan, China, Iran, Norway, Mexico, Germany, France, Venezuela,
Iraq, Nigeria, Ukraine, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, USA, India, Japan, Cuba,
Gabon, Lebanon, Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, England, Korea, Japan, Greece, Denmark,
Egypt, Sweden, Switzerland, Netherlands, Denmark, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Italy,
Thailand, Turkey
28
- ish
- an / -ian / - ican
- ese
other
British
American
Chinese
French
VI. Study the following word combinations. Make up sentences about oil
using some of them.
crude oil, vary in appearance and composition, layers of rock, upper strata, raw
material, fine-grained sediments, source rock, decayed plant and animal remains,
petroleum running out, non-renewable resource, convert into, extract and process,
leading producers
VII. Read the text. Reorder these questions according to the text and answer
them.
a) Why is petroleum often called ‘black gold’?
b) Where does petroleum naturally occur?
c) Which countries are considered the chief petroleum producers?
d) What are the main characteristics of petroleum?
e) In which spheres is petroleum mostly used?
f) What are the theories of the oil origin?
g) What does the word ‘petroleum’ mean?
Petroleum (from Greek petra – rock and elaion – oil or Latin oleum – oil )
or crude oil, sometimes colloquially called black gold, is a thick, oily, flammable,
29
dark brown or greenish liquid that occurs naturally in deposits, usually beneath the
surface of the earth. Petroleum exists in the upper strata of some areas of the
Earth's crust. It consists of a complex mixture of various hydrocarbons, largely of
the alkane series, with traces of various nitrogenous and sulfurous compounds, but
may vary much in appearance and composition. Petroleum is used mostly, by
volume, for producing fuel oil and gasoline (petrol), both important "primary
energy" sources. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products,
including solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics. 88% of all petroleum
extracted is processed as fuel; the other 12% is converted into other materials such
as plastic. Since petroleum is a non-renewable resource, many people are worried
about it running out.
Origin and Natural Occurrence. During the past 600 million years
incompletely decayed plant and animal remains have become buried under thick
layers of rock. It is believed that petroleum consists of the remains of these
organisms but it is the small microscopic plankton organism remains that are
largely responsible for the relatively high organic carbon content of fine-grained
sediments which are the principle source rocks for petroleum. Among the leading
producers of petroleum are Saudi Arabia, Russia, the United States (chiefly Texas,
California, Louisiana, Alaska, Oklahoma, and Kansas), Iran, China, Norway,
Mexico, Venezuela, Iraq, Great Britain, the United Arab Emirates, Nigeria, and
Kuwait. The largest known reserves are in the Middle East.
VIII. Read the text again and answer the questions above. Use the following
phrases.
According to the text…
As far as I understand…
If I’m not mistaken…
It’s well-known that…
Interestingly,…
Obviously,…
30
IX. Find the odd word in each line.
1) oily / dark brown/ black / greenish
2) fertilizers / solvents / pesticides / energy sources / plastics
3) crude oil / raw material / processed petroleum / fossil fuel
4) reserves / deposits / remains / strata / resources
5) organism / origin / composition / properties / appearance
6) Russia / Alaska / Norway / Saudi Arabia / Mexico
X. Complete the sentences.
Oil is a natural substance…
Petroleum consists of …
Oil is mainly extracted…
Petroleum products are used…
Vocabulary II
I. Answer the questions.
1) Where do hydrocarbon deposits usually occur?
2) How are oil fields found?
3) Who looks for oil and gas?
II. Practise saying the words.
crude [kru:d]
offshore [‚ɔf’∫ɔ:]
scientific [‚saıәn’tıfık]
inject [ın’ʤekt]
reduce [rı’dju:s]
migration [maı’greı∫n]
gravimeter [’grævı‚mı:tә]
particular [pә’tıkjulә]
magnetometer [‚mægnı’tɔmıtә]
subsurface [sΛb’sз:fıs]
seismic [’saızmık]
survey [’sз:veı]
buoyancy[’bɔıәnsı]
reservoir [’rezәvwa:]
fluid [’flu:ıd]
overpressure [’әuvәpre∫ә]
31
criterion [kraı’tıәrıәn] (criteria (pl)
shale [∫eıl]
[kraı’tıәrıә])
III. Match the English words in A with their Russian equivalents in B.
A
B
1) accumulate in traps
a) бурить поисковую скважину
2) basic evidence
b) просачивание нефти
3) be subjected to high pressure
c) отраженные звуковые волны
4) drill an exploration well
d) основное доказательство
5) extended period of time
e) длительный период времени
6) highly sophisticated technology
f) различная плотность
7) oil seeps
g) береговые залежи
8) onshore deposits
h) видимые особенности
поверхности
9) promising site
10) pump oil out
i) перспективное месторождение
11) pumpjack
j) сложная технология
12) reflected sound waves
k) накапливаться в ловушках
13) varying densities
l) выкачивать нефть
14) visible surface features
m) нефтяная вышка
n) подвергаться высокому
давлению
IV. a) Match the halves of the complex adjectives from A and B.
A
density-
high-
organic-
non-
sub-
newly-
large-
B
matured
porous
related
rich
risk
scale
b) Which of the words above do these words match to make complex
adjectives?
32
surface
-appointed
-married
-stratum
-class
oxygen-
-tech
-created
petroleum-
-tension
-definition
-pressure
time-
-division
protein-
-tropical
-fallen
-ranking
-urban
-flammable
-renewable
-way
-formed
small-
-zero
-lands
-smoking
-level
-standard
V. Make up derivatives from the verbs below.
1) subject –
2) accumulate –
3) explore –
4) seep –
5) drill –
6) vary –
7) determine –
8) relate –
9) detect –
VI. Read the text and choose the best title.
a) Search for hydrocarbons in remote areas.
b) Drilling of oil wells.
c) Oil exploration methods.
d) Exploration geophysics.
33
Hydrocarbon exploration is the search for hydrocarbon deposits beneath the
Earth's surface, such as oil and gas, by petroleum geologists. Oil and gas
exploration are grouped under the science of petroleum geology.
According to modern biogenic theory, hydrocarbons form when organic-rich
rock such as oil shale is subjected to high pressure and temperature over an
extended period of time. The theory of abiogenic petroleum origin holds that
natural petroleum was formed from deep carbon deposits, perhaps dating to the
formation of the Earth. Hydrocarbons are expelled from source rock by densityrelated mechanisms: the newly-matured hydrocarbons are less dense than their
precursors, which causes overpressure; the hydrocarbons are lighter medium, and
so migrate upwards due to buoyancy.
Most hydrocarbons seep to the surface, but particular formations of nonporous rock known as traps (e.g. anticline, fault block) may allow them to
accumulate. Such accumulation is known as a reservoir. This is a porous sandstone
or limestone. The oil collects in the pores within the rock. The reservoir must also
be permeable so that the hydrocarbons will flow to surface during production. The
objective of oil exploration is to find such reservoirs.
Visible surface features, such as oil seeps and natural gas seeps, provide
basic evidence of reservoirs (be it shallow or deep in the Earth). However, most
exploration depends on highly sophisticated technology to detect and determine the
extent of these deposits.
Because of the subterranean origin of petroleum it must be extracted by
means of wells. Until an exploratory well, or wildcat, has been dug, there is no sure
way of knowing whether or not petroleum lies under a particular site. Areas
thought to contain hydrocarbons are initially subjected to a gravity survey or
magnetic survey to detect large scale features of the subsurface geology. Features
of interest (known as leads or prospects) are subjected to more detailed seismic
surveys which work on the principle of the time it takes for reflected sound waves
to travel through matter (rock) of varying densities to create a profile of the
substructure. In order to reduce the number of exploratory wells drilled, scientific
34
methods are used to pick the most promising sites. Sensitive instruments, such as
the gravimeter, the magnetometer, and the seismograph, may be used to find
subsurface rock formations that can hold crude oil.
Finally, when a prospect has been identified and evaluated and passes the oil
company's selection criteria, an exploration well is drilled to conclusively
determine the presence or absence of oil or gas. Drilling is a fairly complex and
often risky process. Some wells must be dug several miles deep before petroleum
deposits are reached. Many are now drilled offshore from platforms standing in the
ocean bed. Usually the petroleum from a new well will come to the surface under
its own pressure. Later the crude oil must be pumped out or forced to the surface
by injecting water, gas, or air into the deposits.
All in all, oil exploration is an expensive, high-risk operation. Offshore and
remote area exploration is generally only undertaken by very large corporations or
national governments. Typical shallow shelf oil wells (e.g. North sea) cost $10 - 30
million, while deep water wells can cost up to USD $100 million plus. Hundreds of
smaller companies search for onshore hydrocarbon deposits worldwide, with some
wells costing as little as $500,000 USD.
VII. Answer the questions.
1) What is hydrocarbon exploration?
2) Who searches for oil and gas deposits?
3) How do hydrocarbons form?
4) What makes them seep to the surface?
5) Where are traps formed?
6) Where is oil accumulated?
7) What are the three ways to find crude oil deposits?
8) What is the basic principle of seismic survey?
9) What is the objective of all the surveys carried out in a promising site?
10) What risks do oil exploration companies run?
35
VIII. Match the words in A with the words in B. More than one combination
is possible.
A
oil, natural, source, porous, nonporous, basic, detailed, gravity, magnetic, onshore,
offshore, mineral, hydrocarbon, physical, subsurface, high, historical
B
shale, field, properties, risk, temperature, pressure, geology, deposit, exploration,
survey, evidence, elements, rock, resources, seeps
IX. Explain in English the meaning of the following terms.
petroleum, source rock, oil seep, hydrocarbon migration, trap, reservoir, prospect,
oil exploration, seismic survey, exploratory well
X. Use the following linkers to summarize the text.
I’d like to tell you…
It is thought that…
Generally speaking…
However…
On the one hand…/ On the other hand…
It’s important to mention that…
What is more…
One of the main arguments for (against) … is …
In conclusion, I would say that…
XI. Solve the crossword puzzle.
36
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
ACROSS
3 An exploration well
4 Oil ...s through pores in rock to the
Earth's surface
7 A dome formed when layers of rock are
folded
8 A promising site
12 A search for hydrocarbons
13 One of the largest oil producers and
exporters on Earth
15 To make raw materials ready to be used
18 Can burn very easily
19 The quality of rock that has many small
holes through which oil can migrate
20 A theory of oil origin based on
biological evidence
DOWN
1 A substance that is not solid or a gas
and that can be poured
2 A layer of a mineral in rocks
5 To gradually increase in amount
6 Relating to earthquakes and reflected
sound waves
8 Oil obtained from under the ground that
is used to make petrol and other
substances
9 An underground 'lake' of oil
10 A structure used to extract oil
11 A detailed examination of a site
14 The process of making a well
16 A sedimentary rock
17 The opposite of 'onshore'
37
22 A hole made in the ground for the
removal of oil
20 The colour which oil is often associated
with
21 Oil in a natural state that has not yet
been treated
XII. Render in English. Use the following phrases.
oily flammable liquid, mixture of hydrocarbons, sediments, composition of oil,
fossil fuel, non-renewable resource, oil producer, raw material, oil exploration,
drilling works, gravity survey, seismic survey, magnetic survey, oil well, wildcat,
anticline, dome, trap, production of oil deposit, physical properties, chemical
composition, thickness, lithology
Нефть — горючая маслянистая жидкость, являющаяся смесью
углеводородов, жёлто-зелёного, красно-коричневого, иногда почти чёрного
цвета, имеет специфический запах, распространена в осадочной оболочке
Земли. Химический состав нефти зависит от месторождения, в котором ее
добывают. Нефть - это одно из наиважнейших полезных ископаемых и
ведущий источник энергии. Нефть относится к невозобновляемым ресурсам.
Крупнейшие мировые нефтедобытчики – Саудовская Аравия, Россия,
США, Иран, Китай, Мексика, Канада, Венесуэла. Нефть используется для
выработки
топлив
и
масел
и
является
сырьем
для
производства
синтетических каучуков, пластмасс, удобрений, моющих средств, красителей
и др. В России добычей нефти занимаются несколько нефтяных компаний,
крупнейшими из которых в 2007 году были ОАО «Роснефть», ОАО
«Лукойл» и ОАО «ТНК-BP».
Разведка
новых
месторождений
производится
с
помощью
геологических, геофизических, геохимических и буровых работ. В поисках
нефтяного месторождения осуществляются геологическая, аэромагнитная и
гравиметрическая съёмки, геохимические исследования вод и пород,
сейсморазведка, бурение скважин. В результате выявляются возможные
нефтегазоносные зоны. Затем производится более детальное изучение
нефтегазоносных зон путём структурно-геологической съёмки, детальной
38
гравиразведки, электроразведки, сейсморазведки и структурного бурения.
Составляются
структурная
и др.
виды
карт. Поисковые скважины
закладываются в присводовых частях антиклиналей, куполов или в районах
развития ловушек. Завершающий этап — подготовка месторождения к
разработке. В процессе разведки должны быть оконтурены залежи,
определены
литологии,
состав,
мощность,
коллекторные
свойства
продуктивных горизонтов, исследованы физико-химические свойства нефти,
газа и воды, установлены продуктивности будущих скважин.
Lesson 5
MYSTERIOUS MARS
I. Answer the questions.
What do you know about space?
What are the planets of the solar system?
II. Match these names with the descriptions below.
Earth, Mars, the solar system, the Moon
1) ________ consists of the Sun and the other celestial objects gravitationally
bound to it: the eight planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, Neptune), their 166 known moons, three dwarf planets (Ceres, Pluto, and
Eris and their four known moons), and billions of small bodies. This last category
includes asteroids, Kuiper belt objects, comets, meteoroids, and interplanetary
dust.
2) ________ is the only planet known to have current geological activity, and the
only planet known to have life. Its atmosphere and hydrosphere are unique, and it
is also the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed.
3) ________ is the natural satellite of the Earth.
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4) ________ is the planet of the solar system. It possesses a tenuous atmosphere of
mostly carbon dioxide. Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes and rift valleys
such, shows geological activity that may have persisted until very recently. Its red
color comes from rust in its iron-rich soil. It has two tiny natural satellites
Vocabulary I
III. Practise saying these words.
Mars [ma:z]
basalt [’bæsɔ:lt]
Martian [’ma:∫әn]
interior [ın’tıәriә]
terrestrial [tә’restriәl]
core [kɔ:]
volcano [vɔl’keınәu]
mantle [mæntl]
valley [’væli]
cryosphere [kraıәu’sfıә]
desert [’dezәt]
ionosphere [aı’ɔnәsfıә]
feature [’fi:ʧә]
habitable [’hæbıtәbl]
reminiscent [‚remı’nısnt]
inertia [ı’nз:∫ә]
epoch [’i:pɔk]
current [’kΛrәnt]
crater [’kreıtә]
IV. Translate the underlined words in the text into Russian.
V. Read the first part of the text and match the paragraphs with the
appropriate headings.
a) The inner structure of Mars
b) Water resources of the planet
c) Geographical features of Mars
d) Geologic time scale
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Geology of Mars
Part I
(1) __________________
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is
named after Mars, the Roman god of war. It is also referred to as the "Red Planet"
because of its reddish appearance as seen from Earth. Mars is a terrestrial planet
with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact
craters of the Moon and the volcanoes, valleys, deserts and polar ice caps of Earth.
It is the site of Olympus Mons, the highest known mountain in the Solar System,
and of Valles Marineris, the largest canyon. Mars has two moons, Phobos and
Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. Mars can be seen from Earth with
the naked eye. In addition to its geographical features, Mars has approximately half
the radius of Earth and only one-tenth the mass, being less dense, but its surface
area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land. Of all the planets in
our Solar System other than Earth, Mars is the most likely to harbor liquid water,
and perhaps life.
(2)___________________
The geological history of Mars can be split into many epochs, but the
following are the three main ones:
1) Noachian epoch: Formation of the oldest extant surfaces of Mars, 3.8 billion
years ago to 3.5 billion years ago. The Tharsis bulge volcanic upland is thought to
have formed during this period, with extensive flooding by liquid water late in the
epoch.
2) Hesperian epoch: 3.5 billion years ago to 1.8 billion years ago. The Hesperian
epoch is marked by the formation of extensive lava plains.
3) Amazonian epoch: 1.8 billion years ago to present. Olympus Mons formed
during this period along with lava flows elsewhere on Mars.
(3)___________________
Current models of the planet's interior imply a core region about
1,480 kilometres in radius, consisting primarily of iron with about 14–17% sulfur.
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This iron sulfide core is partially fluid. The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle
that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet, but now
appears to be inactive. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km,
with a maximum thickness of 125 km.Earth's crust, averaging 40 km, is only a
third as thick as Mars’ crust relative to the sizes of the two planets.
(4)____________________
Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars with its present low
atmospheric pressure, but there are two polar ice caps made largely of ice. In
March 2007, NASA announced that the volume of water ice in the south polar ice
cap, if melted, would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth
of 11 metres.. Much larger quantities of water are thought to be trapped underneath
Mars's thick cryosphere, only to be released when the crust is cracked through
volcanic action. Further evidence that liquid water once existed on the surface of
Mars comes from the detection of specific minerals such as hematite and goethite,
both of which sometimes form in the presence of water.
VI. Answer the questions.
1. What are the arguments for the presence of liquid water on Mars in the past?
2. What is the position of Mars in the solar system?
3. Why is Mars called the ‘Red Planet’?
4. Which planet is bigger – Earth or Mars?
5. How old is Mars?
VII. Answer the following questions. Read the second part of the text and
check your ideas.
1. Why is Mars considered a geologically dead planet?
2. How does the absence of magnetosphere influence Mars?
3. How can you explain failures of most Martian missions?
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Part II
Based on orbital observations and the examination of the Martian meteorite
collection, the surface of Mars appears to be composed primarily of basalt. Some
evidence suggests that a portion of the Martian surface is more silica-rich than
typical basalt, and may be similar to andesitic stones on Earth; however, these
observations may also be explained by silica glass. Much of the surface is deeply
covered by a fine iron(III) oxide dust that has the consistency of talcum powder.
Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, so the solar wind interacts
directly with the Martian ionosphere, keeping the atmosphere thinner than it would
otherwise be by stripping away atoms from the outer layer. The atmosphere of
Mars consists of 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, and contains
traces of oxygen and water. During a pole's winter, it lies in continuous darkness,
chilling the surface and causing 25–30% of the atmosphere to condense out into
thick slabs of CO2 ice (dry ice). When the poles are again exposed to sunlight, the
frozen CO2 sublimes, creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as
400 km/h. These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor,
giving rise to Earth-like frost and large clouds.
Of all the planets, Mars's seasons are the most Earth-like. However, the
lengths of the Martian seasons are about twice those of Earth's, as Mars’ greater
distance from the Sun leads to the Martian year being about two Earth years in
length. Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about −140 °C (-220 °F)
during the polar winters to highs of up to 20 °C (68 °F) in summers. The wide
range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar
heat, the low atmospheric pressure, and the low thermal inertia of Martian soil.
Mars is also nearly, or perhaps totally, geologically dead; the end of volcanic
activity has stopped the recycling of chemicals and minerals between the surface
and interior of the planet. Evidence suggests that the planet was once significantly
more habitable than it is today, but whether living organisms ever existed there is
still unclear. Dozens of spacecraft, including orbiters, landers, and rovers, have
been sent to Mars by the Soviet Union, the United States, Europe, and Japan to
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study the planet's surface, climate, and geology. Roughly two-thirds of all
spacecraft destined for Mars have failed in one manner or another before
completing or even beginning their missions. While this high failure rate can be
ascribed to technical problems, enough have either failed or lost communications
for unknown causes. Some popular explanations include an Earth-Mars "Bermuda
Triangle", a Mars Curse, or even the long-standing NASA in-joke, the "Great
Galactic Ghoul" that feeds on Martian spacecraft.
VIII. How many phrases starting with the word ‘Martian’ can you think of?
Write them down.
e.g. Martian spacecraft
IX. How are the following words and phrases connected with Mars?
the Roman god of war, the solar system, the moon, carbon dioxide, dry ice, ice
caps, spacecrafts, ‘Bermuda Triangle’
X. Compare the two planets - Earth and Mars. Which of the following aspects
are similar (S) and which are different (D)?
geographical features
volcanic activity
atmosphere
structure of the planet
hydrosphere
life conditions
seasons
geological history
crust
satellites
one year
magnetosphere
average temperatures
terrestrial character
XI. Do the quiz. Are these statements true (T) or false (F)?
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What Do You Know about Mars?
1. There are water and energy sources on Mars.
2. For life to exist, it must have water. However, this water could be in liquid,
frozen, or gas form.
3. Mars is about the same size as Earth.
4. The temperature on Mars is higher than it is on Earth.
5. The atmosphere of Mars is made up mostly of carbon dioxide.
6. A day on Mars is much longer than a day on Earth.
7. A meteorite from Mars hit the Earth in the Stone Age.
8. Mars is called the ‘Red Planet’ because it is boiling hot.
9. Scientists have photographs of the Martian landscape.
10.There are fierce dust storms on Mars.
11.The gravity on Mars is so strong that it would be impossible for a human
being to walk there.
12.Unmanned equipment has already landed on Mars.
13.Primitive life forms, such as bacteria, probably exist on Mars.
14. In the 1970s, the US sent a spacecraft to search for life on Mars.
15.If we managed to get people to Mars, they could make building materials
from the Martian soil.
16.The US agency that sends spacecraft to Mars is called NASA (National
Aeronautics and Space Administration).
YOUR TOTAL SCORE:__________
Ratings: 16 -14: You are a Mars expert.
9 -13: You know a lot about Mars.
below 9: You have more to learn about Mars.
XII. Translate into English.
планета Солнечной системы, красноватый оттенок поверхности, оксид
железа(III), планета земной группы, марсоход, собранные миссиями данные,
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водные ресурсы, естественный спутник: неправильная форма, марсианская
атмосфера, полярная шапка, жидкая вода, атмосфера состоит из углекислого
газа, водяной пар, геологическая активность, пылевые бури, внутреннее
строение, спутники Марса, успешно завершенные миссии, самый большой
известный каньон в Солнечной системе, популярное объяснение,
вулканическая активность, солнечное тепло, сухой лед, поверхность
планеты, геологическая история, вулканическая долина, затопление,
коллекция марсианских метеоритов, полярный день и полярная ночь,
атмосферное давление, почва Марса, годный для жизни.
XIII. Is life on Mars possible? Answer the question using the following
phrases.
I hope…
I don’t believe…
I’m (not) sure…
I’m (not) convinced that…
I doubt…
I’m absolutely certain that…
I have some (no) doubts..
In my opinion / view…
I tend to think …
It seems to me that…
Key to the quiz:
True: 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16
False:
3 (the diameter of Mars is about half that of the Earth)
4 (Mars is cold)
8 (Mars is called ‘the red planet’ because of its red appearance)
11 (gravity on Mars is only 38 % that of the Earth)
13 F (life on Mars hasn’t been found yet)
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