MODULE 1
Methods & Functions Of Educational Psychology
Learning Objectives:
After completion of module 1, you are expected to be able to:
1. Discuss the different methods of educational psychology.
2. Explain the functions of educational psychology.
Introduction
In educational psychology, there are methods of obtaining data. These are
ways which are utilized to study and investigate the problems solved in learning
and teaching. Educational psychology derives its data on many sources including
the following: observation, interviews and questionnaires, standardized tests,
case studies, correlational research, experimental research, and time span of
research ( Santrock, 2001).
In order to meet the obligation for the demand of science and the demand
of religion, the course in educational psychology must serve certain functions and
must stress certain aspects ( Kelly ). Kelly listed eight functions of educational
psychology. The first three functions are basic. They are concerned with the
application of Christian principles, which present the true and valid concept of
human destiny as well as the nature and aim of education. The remaining four
functions involve the presentation and application of laws and application of the
laws and techniques which will be of use in directing the experience by which
knowledge and skills, habits, and attitudes, ideals and virtues are acquired; in
solving the problems that arise in the educative process; and in determining and
evaluating methods of instruction.
METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Santrock (2001) listed the following methods of educational psychology:
A . Observation
Scientific observation is highly systematic. It requires knowing what you
are looking for, conducting observations in an unbiased manner, accurately
recording and categorizing what you see, and effectively communicating your
observation. A common way to record observation is to write them down,. In
addition, tape recorders, video camera, special coding sheets. one way
mirrors, and computers increasingly are being used to make observations
more efficient.
Observations can be made in laboratories or in natural setting. A
laboratory is a controlled setting from which many of the complex factors of
the real world have been removed. In naturalistic observation, behavior is
observed out in the real world. Educational psychologists conduct naturalistic
observations of children in classroom, museums, playgrounds, in homes, in
neighborhoods, and in other settings.
B. Interviews and Questionnaires
Sometimes the quickest and best way to get information about
students and teachers is to ask them for it. Educational psychologists use
interviews and questionnaires ( surveys) to find out about children’s and
teachers ‘ experiences, beliefs, and feelings. Most interviews take place faceto- face, although they can be done in other ways, such as over the phone or
internet. Questionnaires are usually given to individuals in printed form and
they can be filled out in many ways, such as in person, by mail, or via the
Internet.
C. Standardized Tests
Standardized tests are commercially prepared tests that assess
students’ performance in different domains. Many standardized tests allow
student’s performance to be compared with the performance of other students
at the same age or grade level, in many cases on a national basis. Students
might take a number of these tests to assess their intelligence, achievement,
personality, career interests, and other skills. These tests could also provide
outcome measures for research studies, information that helps psychologists
and educators make decisions about an individual student, and comparisons
of students’ performance across school, states, and countries.
D. Case Studies
A case study is an in depth look at an individual. Case studies often
are used when unique circumstances in a person’s life cannot be duplicated,
for either practical, or ethical reasons. Although case studies provide
dramatic, in-depth portrayals of people’s lives, we need to exercise caution
when interpreting them. The subject of a case study is unique, with a genetic
makeup and set of experiences that no one else shares. For these reasons,
the findings might not generalize to other people.
E.Correlational Reseach
In correlational research, the goal is to describe the strength of the
relation between two or more events or characteristics. Correlational research
is useful because the more strongly two events are correlated. ( related or
associated), the more effectively we can predict one from the other.
However, correlation by itself does not equal causation.
E. Experimental Research
Experimental research allows educational psychologists to determine
the causes of behavior. Educational psychologists accomplish this task by
performing an experiment, a carefully regulated procedure in which one or
more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied is
manipulated and all other factors are help constant. Cause is the event being
manipulated. Effect is the behavior that changes because of the
manipulation.
Experiments involve at least one independent variable and one
dependent variable. The independent variable is the manipulated,
influential, experimental factor. The dependent variable is the factor that is
measured in an experiment.
F.Time Span of Research
We can study groups if individuals all at one time or study the same
individuals over time.
Cross sectional research involves studying groups of people all at
one time. Its main advantage is that the researcher does not have to wait for
the students to grow older. However , this approach provides no information
about the stability of individual students’ self-esteem or how it might change
overtime.
Longitudinal research involves studying the same individuals
over a period of time, usually several years or more. One of the great values of
longitudinal research is that we can evaluate how individual children change as
they get older.. However, because longitudinal research is timer consuming and
costly, most research is cross-sectional.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Kelly listed eight functions of educational psychology. They are as
follows:
1. The first function is to afford a thorough knowledge of the nature of the
child. By virtue of his human nature the child is composed of body and
soul, endowed with intellect and will destined for eternal life. This function
is especially significant, since in the last analysis every system of
education is based upon some theory of the nature and destiny of the
child. Consequently, when the teacher’s interpretation of the nature and
destiny of the child is false, his work is bound to be faulty and even
harmful.
2. The second function is to provide an understanding of the nature, aims ,
and purposes of education. For the Catholic, education is the complete
formation of the whole child, the development of all his powers and
capacities to enable him to fulfill life’s purposes and to achieve the end for
which he was created.
3. The third function is to acquire familiarity with the technical vocabulary and
to further an understanding and appreciation of the scientific procedures
by which the data of educational psychology are obtained, leading to the
development of a scientific attitude.
4. The fourth function is to provide a significant knowledge of the
developmental process with particular emphasis upon the promotion,
guidance, and control of mental and moral aspects in order that the nature
of man maybe understood and his original endowments maybe used to
develop his latent possibilities.
5. The fifth function is to provide an understanding of the principle governing
learning, together with the knowledge of techniques for guiding
improvement in learning and their application to the practical problems of
the classroom. To accomplish these purposes, it is essential that the
following phases be presented adequately and considered thoroughly:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Individual differences
The learning process
The motivation of learning
The factors and conditions which influence the efficiency of learning
Transfer of learning
Development of effective study habits and skills
6. The sixth function is to present the theories underlying the measurement
and evaluation of mental abilities, aptitudes , educational achievements,
interests, and personality organization.
7. To present the principles and conclusions regarding the prevention of all
types of maladjustments together with the approved practices for
achieving satisfactory adjustments.
8. To inculcate in the prospective teacher the realization that the most
essential purpose, the most important objective, and the primary
consideration throughout the entire educational process from the
kindergarten through the university is character formation.
Educational psychology must bridge the gap between learning theory
and realistic learning experience in the classroom by providing a broad and
functional understanding of the child, of his nature, of his development and
adjustment, of how he learns, and it must do so in the light of true principles.
Learning Activities
A. Post Test
I.
Direction: Identify the method of educational psychology described
below. Place your answer on the blank space before the number.
_____________1.an in depth look at an individual and often used when
unique circumstances in a person’s life cannot be duplicated
for either practical or ethical reasons.
_____________2. used to study group of individuals all at one time or study
the same individuals over time
_____________3. the goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics
_____________4. accurately recording and categorizing what you see and
effectively communicating it
_____________5. commercially prepared tests that assess students’ performances in different domains
_____________6. easy way to get information and are usually given to individual in printed form
_____________7. research used to determine the causes of behavior
II.
Enumerate
psychology.
and discuss the different functions of educational
B. Enrichment Activity
Read more about the different methods of educational psychology and
give some specific cases where these methods were applied. Discuss each
example comprehensively.
References:
Kelly, William A., Educational Psychology. Shore Wood, Wisconsin
Santrock, John, W., (2001). Educational Psychology. New York: Mc-Graw- Hill
Company Inc.
MODULE 2
Teacher – Centered And Learner Centered Classroom
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to :
1. Differentiate
classroom.
teacher-
centered
classroom
from
student-centered
2. Cite the seven elements that constitute an effective lesson.
3. Explain the different techniques used in a teacher- centered classroom and
how each encourages active learning.
4. Discuss the common teaching techniques in a student - centered
classroom and explain how each encourages active learning.
Introduction
What kind of teaching yields active learning?
There are many ways to facilitate active learning. In this module, you
are going to examine the traditional teaching techniques that have been around
for hundred of years as well more recent techniques. The major distinction made
in this module is between teacher- centered instruction and student- centered
instruction. This distinction refers to the locus of the learning activity. Teachers
who present the key concepts of a unit through lecture are at the center of
learning activity in their classrooms. If the students are in need of clarification,
they go to the source of information. This is a teacher- centered instruction. In
student- centered instruction, a teacher may organize students into learning
groups, provide them with the necessary resources and materials, and then
expect the students to teach each other the key concepts. In this case, if
clarification is needed, students would consult each other before going to the
instructor.
Teacher–centered techniques concentrate the responsibility for guiding
the teaching –learning process in the student ; student- centered techniques
spread the responsibility between teacher and students. Both sets of techniques
can be used to foster active learning in students.
TEACHER – CENTERED CLASSROOM/INSTRUCTION
EXPOSITORY TEACHING
Direct instruction is the characteristic of a teacher- centered
classroom. Direct instruction is a structure, teacher –centered approach that is
characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for
students’ progress, maximizing the time students spend on academic tasks, and
efforts by the teacher to keep negative effect to a minimum ( Joyce and Weil
1996 as cited in Santrock, 2001). The focus of direct instruction is academic
activity; non- academic materials ( toys, games, and puzzles) tend not to used;
also deemphasized is non-academically oriented teacher-student interaction
(such as questions about self or personal concerns).
Teacher direct and control take place when the teacher chooses
students’ learning of the tasks, and minimizes the amount of nonacademic talk.
The teacher sets high standards for performance and expects students to reach
these levels of excellence.
An important goal in the direct instruction approach is maximizing
student learning time ( Stevenson as cited in Santrock, 2001). Learning takes
time. The more time students spend on learning tasks, the more likely they are to
learn the material and achieve high standards. The direct instruction premise is
that the best way to maximize time on academic tasks to create a highly
structured , academically oriented learning environment.
TEACHER – CENTERED INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
EXPOSITORY TEACHING
Santrock (2001) listed some strategies used in a teacher- centered
classroom.
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These include orienting students; lecturing, explaining, and
demonstrating ; questioning and discussion; mastery learning; seatwork;
and homework.
Prior to presenting and explaining new materials, establish a framework
for the lesson. Advance organizers are a good way to do this.
Effective teachers spend more time explaining and demonstrating new
materials than their less-effective counterparts do.
Effective lectures have a number of features, including advance
organizers, periodic elicitation of student responses, and summarizing.
Mastery learning refers to the idea of learning one concept or topic
thoroughly before moving on to a more difficult one.
Teachers vary in how much they use seatwork as part of their
instruction.
Researchers have found that the effects of homework on achievement
are trivial. Homework has more positive effects in American middle
.school and high school
Advocates of the teacher-centered approach especially believe
that it is the best strategy for teaching basic skills, which involve clearly
structured knowledge and skills ( such as those needed in English, Reading,
math, and science) Thus, in teaching basic skills, the teacher centered approach
might consist of a teacher explicitly or directly teaching grammar rules, reading
vocabulary, math computations, and science facts ( Rosenhine, 1996) as cited in
Santrock, 2001.
On the other hand, critics say that this instruction often leads to
passive, rote learning and inadequate opportunities to construct knowledge and
understanding, overly structured and rigid classrooms, inadequate attention to
students’ socio-emotional development, external rather than internal motivation
to learn, too much reliance on paper- and pencil tasks, few opportunities for real
world learning, and too little collaborative learning in small groups.
HOW CAN TEACHER CENTERED INSTRUCTION
SUPPORT ACTIVE LEARNING
The ways on how teacher- centered instruction support active learning
was discussed by McCown (1995).
Teacher –centered instruction occurs when the teacher exerts a high
degree of control over the teaching learning process. A form of a teachercentered instruction that captures the essence of such approaches is called
direct or explicit instruction ( Rosenshine, 1979, 1986)
Another example of a teacher- centered approach to instruction is
mastery teaching which refers to Madeline Hunter’s seven step lesson model.
Hunter identifies seven elements that constitute an effective lesson:
1. Anticipatory set refers to a mind –set that leaves students curiosity
about the remainder of the lesson.
2. Objective and purpose provides the students with explicit objectives
or purpose of the lesson.
3. Input is the presentation of the new material
4. Modeling means that you should use frequent examples in the lesson
to clarify meanings.
5. Checking for understanding is the evaluation of the students’
comprehension and understanding by asking questions orally or on a
written quiz.
6. Guided practice begins the process of transfer by presenting students
with a few problems or questions to answer on their own.
7. Independent practice encourages students to answer questions or
work problems on their own.
COMMON TEACHING BEHAVIORS/TECHNIQUES
IN TEACHER – CENTERED CLASSROOM
1. LECTURING
Lecturing is a discourse given in a class for the purpose of instruction.
It is practical and efficient because one teacher can present material to
many students at one time. Lecturing is also flexible and adaptable because
teachers can exercise a high degree of control and can change the content as
circumstances in the classroom require.
How to Deliver a Lecture that Encourages Active Learning ( McCown,1995)
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Prelecture Focused Disscussion. Have students pair with the person
seated next to them. Assign the advance organizing task.
First Lecture Segment. Deliver the first part of your lecture. Make sure
that the segment lasts no longer than ten minutes.
First Fair Share. Give the students a task that addresses the material
you covered in the first segment of the lecture for 3 or 4 minutes. The
pairs use the following process to complete the task:
* Individuals formulate their own answers
* students share their formulations with their partners
* students listen intently to their partner’s answers
* together, the pair creates a new answer that synthesizes and
improves on the answers of both individuals
Second Lecture Segment
Second Pair Share
Repeat the lecture segment
Postlecture Discussion
2. EXPLAINING
Explanations are more focused than lectures. The purpose of
explanation is to define. clarify, or provide an account of concepts, events, and
relationships ( Gage & Berliner, 1988).
The teacher who presents explanations effectively tends to be more
responsive to the specific needs of the student and has a clearer idea of the
student’s misunderstanding. The explanation that such a teacher offers provides
information that goes to the heart of the student’s problem. Effective teachers
also tend to provide a context or framework for the answers that their
explanations provide ( Duffy, Roehler, Meloth, & Vavrus, 1986). Explanations are
also occasions for instructing students on how to use the information in other
learning situations, thus contributing to metacognitive awareness and transfer of
learning.
3. QUESTIONING
Questioning refers to anticipating, soliciting, and reacting to student
responses as a means of instruction.
A useful way for teachers to think about questioning includes three
stages:
a. structure- setting the stage for the questions that follow
b. solicitation- asking the questions
c. reaction- responding to the student’s answer
How to Increase Active Learning through Response
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Make declarative statements that encourage elaboration.
Make a reflective paraphrase.
Describe your own views.
Invite student elaboration.
Maintain silence.
4. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE
Independent practice refers to tasks a student completes
independently while in the classroom or at home. In many classrooms, seat
work constitutes a large proportion of the student’s day.
If you use seat work as a regular feature in your classroom, spend
time early in the year establishing rules and procedures that will enable students
to work independently. Establishing seatwork procedures will allow the teacher
to be available as possible to students during their practice sessions. Moving
about the room while monitoring seat works also sends a message to students
that the teacher is aware of their behavior and that the teacher place some
importance on the hand at hand.
Have a break from your readings!
Take a glass of cold water while
internalizing the ideas gained
LEARNER-CENTERED CLASSROOM/INTRUCTION
Learner –centered planning and instruction moves the focus away
from the teacher and toward the student. The learner- centered psychological
principles provide a framework on developing and incorporating the components
into new designs for schooling. The principles involve cognitive and
metacognitive factors, developmental and social factors, and individual
differences factors.
SOME LEARNER – CENTERED INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
Santrock (2001) listed some strategies that are used in a learnercentered instruction.
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This emphasize real- world learning.
Problem- based learning focuses on small group discussion rather than
lecture. Students identify issues they wish to explore, the teacher acts as
guide, helping students monitor their problem solving efforts.
Essential questions are the questions that engagingly reflect the heart of
the curriculum.
Discovery learning in which students construct an understanding of their
own. Discovery learning is designed to get the students to think for
themselves, to discover how knowledge is constructed, to stimulate their
curiosity, and to motivate their inquiry.
The learner – centered model of instruction has many positive
features. These principles developed by the American Psychological Association
task force proved extremely helpful guides that can benefit student learning. This
include thinking of ways to help students actively construct their understanding,
set goals and plan, think deeply and creatively. monitor their learning, solve real
world problem, develop more positive self- esteem and control their emotions, be
internally motivated, collaborate effectively with others, evaluate their learning
preferences, and meet challenging standards.
Critics argue that learner- centered instruction focuses too much on
process and not enough on content. It is more appropriate for social sciences
and humanities than science and math. It is not appropriate for beginning
instruction when students have little or no knowledge about the topic and is more
challenging to implement than most teachers envision. Critics stress that there is
a gap between the theoretical level of student- centered learning and its actual
application.
Keep in mind that although teacher- centered and student- centered
instruction are presented separately, many teachers use aspects of both
approaches.
HOW CAN STUDENT – CENTERED INSTRUCTION
SUPPORT ACTIVE LEARNING
Student- centered instruction can be provided in the form of small
group discussions, peer teaching, cooperative learning, and interactive
instructional technology ( McCown,1995)
1. Small Group Discussion
This allows the students to exchange information and opinions.
Small group discussion is helpful in fostering a student’s ability to think critically
because students must express, support and modify their assumptions,
conclusions, and opinions.
2. Peer Teaching and Learning
Peer teaching and learning can take several forms . One form is
peer tutoring, which occurs when one student is assigned to help another learn
the assigned material. Reciprocal teaching is a specialized form of peer teaching
designed initially to help poor readers develop and apply metacognitive skills.
3. Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is an instructional technique that calls for
students to be teamed together to attain certain goals. The five basic ingredients
of cooperative learning are the following:
* Face-to- face promotive interaction
* Individual responsibility
* Collaborative skill
* Group processing
* Positive interdependence
4. Interactive Instructional Technology
Computers are part
of the learning environment and are
capable of supporting the teaching-learning process in a number of ways.
Computer technology, including data storage systems such as videodisks, is
capable of multimedia presentations of information to learners that include
text, graphics, video, sound and animation. The technology allows the
learners to enter simulated environment that remarkably realistic.
HOW TO DEVELOP YOUR REPERTOIRE
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Discover and analyze the metaphors for teaching and learning that form
the basis of your theory of teaching.
Through personal investigation, professional collaboration, and
classroom practice, expand your knowledge about instructional
approaches, techniques, and formats and about the instructional goals
and learning outcomes.
Remain open in trying new ideas and new teaching behaviors.
Continually integrate your expanding knowledge base with your theory of
teaching through reflective construction.
Learning Activities
Answer the following question::
1. Differentiate teacher-centered classroom from student –centered classroom.
2. What are the seven elements that constitute an effective lesson?
3. List down and discuss the common teaching behaviors or techniques used
in a teacher-centered classroom.
4. Identify the techniques in a student- centered classroom and discuss how
each encourages active learning
References
Gage, N.L. et. al (1988). Educational Psychology. 4th ed. Boston, Houghton
Mifflin Company.
McCown, Rick et al. (1995). Educational Psychology. 2nd ed. Massachusetts:
Simon & Schuster Comp.
Santrock, John, W. (2001) Educational Psychology .New York: Mc-Graw Hill
Company Inc.
Woolfolk, Anita (1998), Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon
MODULE 3
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:
1. Identify and discuss the key concepts in Piaget’s theory.
2. Discuss Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
3. Cite implications of cognitive theories in the teaching- learning process.
Introduction
During the past half-century, the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget devised
a model describing how humans go about making sense of their world by
gathering and organizing information ( Piaget,1954,1962,1970a).
Piaget call himself a “ genetic epistemologist”, a term that reflected his
interest in the process of how we acquire knowledge changes as we develop.
Among the early concepts explaining cognitive development, Piaget’s formulation
of the stages of cognitive development had the greatest impact in the study of
thinking and learning.
This module focuses on the key concepts of Piaget’s theory on
cognitive development and its implication to the teaching-learning process.
KEY CONCEPTS IN PIAGET’ THEORY
Basic Tendencies in Thinking ( Invariant Functions)
Piaget ( 1952 as cited in Elliot,et.al. 2000) stated that we inherit
a method of intellectual functioning that enables us to respond to our
environment by forming cognitive structures. He also believed that intelligence is
essentially a form of organization. He suggested two basic tendencies or “
invariant functions”, organization and adaptation.
Organization
Organization is the combining, arranging, recombining, and
rearranging of behaviors and thoughts. People are born with a tendency to
organize their thinking into psychological structures. Simple structures are
continually combined and coordinated to become more sophisticated and thus
more effective.
For example, young infants can either look at an object or grasp it
when it comes in contact with their hands. They cannot coordinate looking and
grasping at the same time. As they develop, however, infants organize this two
separate behavior or structures into a coordinated high-level. structure of looking
at, reaching for, and grasping the object( Ginsburg & Opper,1998).
In Piaget’s theory, he called these structures schema (plural is
schemata). Schemata are the basic building blocks of thinking. They are
organized systems of actions or thought that allows us to mentally represent or “
think about” the objects and events in the world.
Adaptation
People inherit the tendency to adapt to their environment. Two basic
processes are involved in adaptation: assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation takes place when people use their existing schemes to
make sense of events in their world. Assimilation involves trying to understand
something by fitting it into what we already know. For example, the first time
many children see a skunk, they call it a “ kitty”. Then try to match the new
experience with an existing scheme for identifying animals.
Accomodation occurs when a person must change existing schemes
to respond to a new situation. We adjust our thinking to fit the new information,
instead of adjusting the information to fit our thinking. For example, children
demonstrate accommodation when they add the scheme for recognizing skunks
to their other systems for identifying animals.
Equilibrum
In Piaget’s theory, the actual changes in thinking take place through
the process of equilibrum –the act of searching for mental balance between
cognitive schemes and information from the environment. This is Piaget’s
term for the balance between assimilation and accommodation.
Briefly, the process of equilibrum works like this. If we apply a
particular scheme to an event or situation and the scheme works. the equilibrum
exists. If the scheme does not produce a satisfying result, then diesquilibrum
exists and we become uncomfortable. This motivates us to keep searching for a
solution through assimilation and accommodation; and thus our thinking changes
and moves ahead.
FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Piaget views cognitive development as being continuous process
unfolding but with recognizable stages through which all individuals pass. He
called these stages sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and
formal operational. He believes that the thought processes at each stage are
qualitatively different from those at other stages (Woolfolk,1998). Table 1 below
summarizes the characteristics of the individual at each stage. ( from Piaget’s
Theory of Cognitive and Affective Development,1971,1989)
Table 1
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
STAGE
APPROXIMATE
AGE
CHARACTERISTICS
> begins to make use of
imitation, memory, and
thought
Sensorimotor
0-2 years
> begins to recognize that
objects do not cease to
exist when they are hidden
> Moves from reflex actions
to goal- oriented
> gradually develops use of
language and ability to think
in symbolic form
Pre- operational
2-7 years
> able to think operations
logically in one direction
> has difficulties seeing
another person’s point of
view
> able to solve concrete
(hands- on) problems in
logical fashion
Concrete
operational
7-11 years
> understands laws and is
able to classify and seriate
> understands reversibility
> able to solve abstract
problems in logical fashion
Formal operational
11-adult
> becomes more scientific
in thinking
> develops concern about
social issues
1. Sensorimotor Stage- (birth until two years)
During this stage infants interact with and learn about their environment by
relating their sensory experiences ( such as hearing and seeing) to their motor
actions ( mouthing and grasping). At about 9 months, infants learn object
permanence, the understanding that objects or events continue to exist even if
they can be no longer heard, touched, or seen.
2. Pre- operational Stage- ( 2 years until 6 or 7 years)
Children learn how to use symbols, such as word or mental images to solve
simple problems, and to think and talk about things that are not present.
Language develops and the ability to think about objects and events in their
absence involves the development of internal mental schemata.
A common confusion at this stage is on the principle of conservation. Children
do not readily understand that even though the shapes of some objects or
substance changes, the total amount remains the same. It is also common for
children at this stage to be egocentric or self- centered.
3. Concrete Operational Stage- ( 7- 11 years)
Children at this stage begin to think logically about conservation problems and
other situations as well. However, they can apply their logical operations only to
concrete, observable objects and events. They have difficulty dealing with
abstract information and with hypothetical ideas.
4.. Formal Operational Stage- ( 11 or 12 years through adulthood)
Children at this stage develop the ability to reason with abstract, hypothetical
and contrary- to – fact information. They also begin to understand the concept of
proportion, and become capable of thinking about their own thought processes
and evaluate the quality and logic of those thoughts.
Have a cup of tea or coffee! It is really
interesting to learn the stages that
we have undergone since our birth!
PIAGET’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ON HUMAN LEARNING AND
COGNITION AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Some of Piaget’s ideas about how people learn and think as discussed by
Ormrod (1990) and Woolfolk (1998) are presented here. Some implications of
these concepts to teaching-learning are also included.
1. The rate of cognitive development is controlled to some extent by maturation.
Educational implication: Remember that some students, especially those
younger than eleven or twelve may not yet be capable of understanding
certain ideas, particular and the abstract and hypothetical.
2.People are active processors of information and are motivated learners
Educational implication: Capitalize in student natural curiosity. For example, let them experiment with new objects.
3.Knowledge can be described in terms of structures that change with
development.
Educational implication: Children’s schemata may differ depending on
their responses to stimuli. Help students develop appropriate schema of
objects or events.
4.Cognitive development results from the interaction of individuals with
their physical and social environment.
Educational Implication: Give students many hands- on experiences. Provide opportunities for students to share opinions, perspectives and beliefs
with others.
5.Cognitive development involves an increasing integration and orga-
nization of knowledge.
Educational Implication: Help students discover relationships
concepts and ideas.
among
6.The ways in which people interact with the environment remain
constant.
Educational implication: Make sure students have prior knowledge and
experiences to which they can relate new material.
Learning Activities
Answer the following questions:
1. What are the key concepts in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
Discuss each.
2. Identify the four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget and
describe each.
3. Cite implications of Piaget’s assumptions on human learning and cognition to the teaching-learning process.
References :
1. Elliot, Stephen N. et al. (2000) Educational Psychology. New York. McGraw Hill Inc.
2. Ormrod Jeanne Ellis. (1998) Human Learning: Theories, Principles and
Applications. New York. McMillan Publishing Company.
3. Santrock, John W.(2001) Educational Psychology. New York. McGraw
Hill Inc.
4. Woolfolk, Anita E. (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts. Allyn
and Bacon.
MODULE 4
Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module , you are expected to be able to:
1. Discuss the concept of Zone of Proximal Distance and inner speech of
Vgotsky’s theory of cognitive development .
2. Discuss the application of Vygotsky’s socio- cultural theory in classroom.
Introduction
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian Philosopher in the 1930’s, is most often
associated with the social constructivist theory. He emphasizes the influences of
cultural and social contexts in learning and support a discovery model of learning.
The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social
interaction play fundamental role in the development of cognition. This type of
model places the teacher in an active role while the students’ mental abilities
develop naturally through various paths of discovery.
Vygotsky modeled his theory after the Soviet view that each person has
a role in transforming the society where he belongs.
This module focuses on the basic concepts of Vygotsky’s socio-cultural
theory on cognitive development and its application in the classroom .
KEY CONCEPTS IN VYGOTSKY’S THEORY
Woolfolk (1998) summarized the key concepts in Vygotky’s theory.
They are as follows:
1. Every function in the child’s cultural development appears
twice:
a) first, on the social level and later, on the individual level;
b) first, between people ( interpsychological) and then inside the child
( intrapsychological ).
This applies equally to the voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to
the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual
relationships between individuals.
2. In making meaning about of the world, the community plays a central
role. The people around the student greatly affect the way he or she
sees the world.
3. The potential for cognitive development depends upon the Zone of
Proximal development. Problem solving skills in doing tasks can be placed
in three categories:
a) those able to be performed independently by the student:
b) those that cannot be performed even with help ; and
c) those that fall between two extremes, i.e., the tasks that can be
performed with the help from others. This is what Vygotsky called the
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)- a level of development
attained when children engage in social behavior.
The potential for cognitive development is limited by the ZPD.
Furthermore, full development during the ZPD depends upon full social
interactions and the range of skills that can be developed with the adult
guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone
.
4. Tools for Cognitive Development
The type and quality of these tools determine the pattern and rate of
development. The tools may include important adults and peers of the student,
culture, language and others in the social environment.
5. Thought and Language Connection
Before the age of two years, the development of thought and speech
are separate. However, at two years, they join to initiate a new form. Thought
becomes verbal and speech becomes rational. Speech serves as the intellect as
thoughts are spoken. Thus, social environment is important to children’s
development because it can accelerate or decelerate development.
6. Language and Egocentric and Inner Speech
Language is a tool for organizing thinking because it bears the
concepts. The primary function of speech is communication. Communicative and
egocentric speech are both social with different functions. Speech develops first
with external communicative/ social speech, then egocentric speech, and finally
inner speech.
Vygotsky theorized that egocentric speech has a genetic connection
with inner speech. Egocentric speech is the key to studying inner speech
because it is the stage that precedes it. Both fulfill intellectual functions and have
similar structures. Around the time that children turn 3, egocentric speech
emerges. This is a form of speech in which children carry on lively
conversations, whether or not anyone is present or listening to them. Egocentric
speech is speech on its way inward but still mostly outward. Finally, speech
turns inward (inner speech) and serves as important function in guiding and
planning behavior. Inner speech is for oneself while external, social speech is for
others.
APPLICATION OF VYGOTSKIAN PRINCIPLES IN CLASSROOM
Santrock listed some of the applications of Vygotsky’s theory in
classroom.
1. Learning and development is social, collaborative activity.
2. The Zone of Proximal Development can serve as guide for curriculum and
lesson planning.
3. School learning should occur in a meaningful context and not be separated
from learning and knowledge children develop in the “ real world”.
4. Out- of –school experiences should be related to the child’s school
experience.
You owe yourself a hot chocolate with toasted bread!
You have just finished reading another interesting
topic.
Learning Activities
A. Test yourself. Answer the following:
1. What are the key concepts in Vygotsky’s socio- cultural theory of
cognitive development? Discuss each.
2. Discuss the applications of Vygotsky’s principles in classroom.
B. Enrichment Activity
Read more about ZPD. Discuss other ways on the implication of ZPD on
teaching.
References :
Domjan, M. (1993) The Principles of Learning and Behavior, 3 rd ed. California:
Brooks/ Cole Publishing.
Santrock, John W. ( 2001) Educational Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill Inc.
Woolfolk, Anita. E. (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon
MODULE 5
Classical And Operant Conditioning
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to :
1. Define classical and operant conditioning.
2. Illustrate and explain Pavlov’s experiment on classical conditioning.
3. Cite applications of classical conditioning theory.
4. Discuss Thorndike’s and Skinners operant conditioning and the key
concepts of each theory.
5. Cite the applications of Thorndike’s and Skinner’s theory.
Introduction
When you administer a test, your students will respond to you. When you
ask and answer questions, your students will respond to you. How will they
respond? Will they do what you ask of them? Will they ignore you?
The behavioral approach to learning represents a school of thought
in which learning is explained through observable aspects of the environment.
Behavioral scientist would observe first the students’ behavior and then analyze
what happened to the behavior.
The behavior approach to learning offers strategies for classroom
management and student learning and suggest ways to prevent and resolve
discipline problems. Behavior defines, for educators, the concept of
reinforcement. Reinforcement refers to the consequences of responses that
establish and maintain desirable behavior.
From a behavior scientist’s point of view, the term behavior includes
only observable behaviors. What students think is relatively little concern to
behaviorists; what they do is the focus of importance.
Pavlov’s , Skinner’s, and Thorndike’s
learning process is discussed in this module.
behavioral approaches on the
PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning occurs when a person forms a mental
association between two stimuli so that encountering one stimulus make the
person think of the other stimulus. People tends to form this mental connections
between stimuli that occur simultaneously or become closely together in time and
space.
In his experiments on digestion, Russian Psychologist Ivan Pavlov
notices that the dogs in the laboratory began to salivate just at the mere sight of
the keeper, even before they could see or smell the food given.
His series of experiments led to the formulation of Classical
Conditioning which he won for Pavlov the Nobel Prize in 1904 ( Tria, Limpingco,
and Jao,1998). Classical conditioning is a type of learning wherein an organism
learns to connect or associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus ( such as sight of a
person) becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus ( such as food) and
acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response ( Santrock, 2001).
Stimuli and Responses Involved in Classical Conditioning
1. Unconditioned stimulus ( US) is one that by itself “ naturally” produces
an unconditioned response (UR) without prior training or learning. In Pavlov’s
experiments, food or meat powder is the US. Salivation is an unconditioned
response(UR) because it is a natural or automatic reaction to food, especially for
one who is hungry. Thus, every time the food is presented, the dog salivates.
2. A conditioned stimulus ( CS) is a previously neutral one that eventually
elicits a conditioned response (CR) after being associated with the
unconditioned stimulus ( food). The bell was a first a neutral stimulus and the dog
did not salivate with the sound of the bell. But with the repeated pairing of the
ringing of the bell with the food, the bell acquired the characteristics of the food,
that is eliciting salivation on the dog.
The bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the dog’s salivation to
the sound of the bell is a conditioned response (CR). According to Santrock
(2001) conditioned response is a learned response to the conditioned stimulus
that occurs after the US- CS pairing.
This type of learning by conditioning is illustrated as follows:
BEFORE CONDITIONING
Neutral stimulus (bell)----------------------Response ( no salivation)
U S ( FOOD) ------------------------U R ( dog salivates)
DURING CONDITIONING
Neutral Stimulus (bell) + U S ( food)--------------- U R ( dog salivates)
AFTER CONDITIONING
C S ( bell)------------------------------------------------ C R ( dog salivates)
PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning involves four main processes: acquisition,
generalization, discrimination, and extinction.
1. Acquisition
This involves the initial learning of the conditioned response. For example,
the dog learning to salivate at the sound of the bell. Two important factors
that affect the speed of conditioning during the acquisition phase are the
order and timing of the stimuli. Conditioning occurs most quickly when the
conditioned response ( bell) precedes the unconditioned stimulus ( food) by
about a second. if the time interval is quite long or if the food is presented
before the bell, conditioning is less likely to occur.
2. Generalization
It involves the tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned
stimulus to produce a similar response. On the experiment of John Watson on
the baby named Albert, the fear of white rat that was developed was
generalized to other white and furry animals. In like manner, a student who
developed fear in a male teacher after an embarrassing incident may later
fear all male teachers.
3. Discrimination
In contrast to generalization, in discrimination, an individual learns to
produce a conditioned response to one stimulus but not to another stimulus
that is similar. For example, a child may show a fear response to large black
dogs roaming around the yard, but not to dogs who are in a cage.
4. Extinction
A conditioned response ( salivation) can be eliminated or weakened by
presenting the conditioned stimulus (bell) without the unconditioned stimulus
(food). Thus, the bell loses its capacity to elicit a conditioned response
(salivation).
5. Spontaneous Recovery
A response that had been learned and then extinguished can reappear
spontaneously when the conditioned stimulus is again presented.
Spontaneous recovery indicates that learning is not permanently lost.
APPLICATIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS
OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Santrock (2001) listed some applications and contributions of
classical conditioning.
1. It helps us understand some concepts of learning better than others. It
excels in explaining how neutral stimuli become associated with unlearned
involuntary response.
2. It aids in explaining many emotional responses such as happiness,
excitement, anger ands anxiety- that people have for a certain stimuli.
3. It helps explain the underlying cause of some phobias- which are irrational
or excessive fears of specific objects or situations.
4. Classical conditioning procedures are likewise use to treat phobias and
other unwanted behaviors such as alcoholism and addictions.
____________________________________
Have a break
your
readings!
Have from
a break
from
your readings!
Take a glass
of
cold
water
while
Take a glass of cold water while
internalizing the ideas gained
INSTRUMENTAL OR OPERANT CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning is helpful in understanding student’s fear and
anxieties. However, it is not effective in explaining voluntary behaviors, such as
why students studies hard for a test or li likes history better than sociology. For
these domains, operant conditioning is more relevant.
The major theorists in operant conditioning are Edward Thorndike.
John Watson ,and B. F. Skinner. They proposed that learning is the result of the
application of consequences, that is the learner begin to connect certain
responses with certain stimuli. This connection causes the probability of the
response to change, thus , learning occurs.
Thorndike’s Connectionism
Edward Lee Thorndike’s experiment with hungry cats in a puzzle box
was a precursor to B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning. Thorndike called this type
of learning “ instrumental “ because through trail and error method, the cat was
able to open the latch ( e.g. an instrument ) inside the box and was able to
escape from the box to get the food. outside.
From his studies on cats, dogs , and chickens, Thorndike came up with his
Laws of Learning. He recognized two laws of learning, the stimulus ( S ) and
the response (R)). From him , learning involves the establishment for stimulusresponse connections thus paving the ways for the development of the S-R
theory of learning. His methods is also called association learning or
connectionism because it involves forming bonds between the stimulus
impressions and the responses.
=Sprinthall & Sprinthall (2000) cited Thorndike’s laws of learning which
is still influential in modern thinking and practice.
1. Law of Effect
It states that behavior followed by a positive outcome or reward are
strengthened and those that are followed by a negative consequence or
dissatisfiers are weakened. Thus, the strengthening or weakening of the S-R
bond is dependent on the consequence or what follows the response. For
example, when pupil is praised for doing well in his project, he continues to
strive to have superior work. On the other hand, if he is not recognized and
was even criticized, he may not strive to improve his performance.
2. Law of Readiness
It posits that when the S-R connections are to conduct, then the
learner is ready to learn. This readiness to learn differs from maturation which
is a prerequisite to learning. As emphasized by Lupdag (1984), readiness to
learn here refers to a temporary neuropsychological state, referred to as
neurologically “ teachable moment”. Thus a child is ready to learn to dance
when his bones are matured for such an activity and when he has the mind
set and eagerness to learn.
3. Law of Exercise
It simply means that learning occurs with constant practice. The S-R
connections are strengthened when they are used and are weakened when
not utilized. The drill method is a good example of the use of this law.
B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Burrhus Frederick Skinner used to term “ operant conditioning”
because he described the organisms as “ operating” on and influenced by the
environment. Whereas classical conditioning illustrates S-R pattern, operant
conditioning is often viewed as R-S learning. It is the consequence that
follows the response that influences whether the response will be repeated.
In the famous Skinner’s box, there is a lever or bar that operates to
dispense pellets or food. A hungry rat was placed inside the box. As the rat
moves around and explores the box, it accidentally pressed the lever that
dispensed the food. Later, the rat was conditioned to ” intentionally” press the
lever to get the food.
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the
consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the
behavior will occur ( Santrock, 2001). These consequences of behavior are
reinforcement and punishment.
Reinforcement ( reward ) is a consequence that increases the
probability that a behavior will occur, while punishment is a consequence that
decreases the possibility for the occurrence of a behavior.
Reinforcement can be positive or negative. In positive reinforcement
a behavior increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus ( such as
a praise). In negative reinforcement, a behavior increases because the
consequence is a removal of an unpleasant stimulus. The result in both is
reinforced behavior. Examples of Reinforcement and Punishment are as
follows:
BEHAVIOR
Student gives a
good answer to
teacher’s question
BEHAVIOR
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
CONSEQUENCE
FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Teacher praises the
student
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
CONSEQUENCE
FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Student submits
Teachers stops
homework on time criticizing the student
BEHAVIOR
Student makes
noise in class
Student gives more good
answers
PUNISHMENT
CONSEQUENCE
Teacher verbally
reprimands the student
Student increasingly
submits homework on time
FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Student stops making
noise in the class
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Skinner developed schedules of reinforcement which are important to
determine when a response will be reinforced.
1. Continuous Reinforcement
- the behavior is followed by a
consequence each time it occurs. For example, every time the student
volunteers to erase the blackboard, the teacher gives praises.
2. Intermittent Reinforcement - this is based either on the passage of
time ( interval schedule) or the number of correct responses emitted
(ratio schedule). It consist of four types :
a. fixed ratio – a behavior is reinforced after a set of responses. This
schedule id recommended for learning a new behavior.
Examples: a weekly quiz; a star for every 5 correct words spelled
b. variable ratio – a behavior is reinforced after an average number of
times which changes on an unpredictable basis. This schedule is
best for maintaining behavior. For example, a reward is given after
the 2nd correct response. after 8 more correct responses, then after
the next 5 more correct responses.
c. fixed interval– the first appropriate response after a fixed amount of
time is reinforced. For example, a praise is given to correct response
after every 2 minutes have elapsed.
d. variable interval– a response is reinforced after a variable amount
of time has elapsed. For example, the teacher might praise a student
after 5 minutes, then after 8 minutes, then after 15 minutes have
gone by.
APPLICATION OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Aside from positive and negative reinforcement. there are other
principles of operant conditioning that can be applied in learning.
1. The Premack Principle
Named after David Premack (1965), this principle states that a high
frequency behavior ( a preferred activity) can be an effective reinforcer for a
low frequency behavior ( less preferred activity ). This sometimes is called
“Grandma’s Rule: first do what I want you to do, then you may do what you
want to do”. For the Premack principle to be effective, the low-frequency
(less preferred) behavior must happen first.
Examples:
a. less- preferred activity – for students to finish their seatwork or
study a new lesson
b. preferred activity – moving around the room, reading magazines,
playing games, talking about film, or being
exempt from assignments.
Teachers can use this principle to encourage their students to finish
their school work first before they will be allowed to do other things.
2. Shaping
The method of successive approximation is used to shape
behavior. a target goal or desired behavior set. Then the individual is
rewarded for each small step taken that would lead to the final goal or target
response. With the use of this method, it is possible to train animals in
complex behavior. In the case of humans, the procedure for teaching a
complex behavior is to start by enforcing partial responses, the small bits of
behavior that leads to the whole, and little by little, a complete response is
shaped. And once the desired behavior is learned, it may not use reinforcing
anymore.
Learning Activities
A . Answer the following questions:
1. What is classical conditioning?
2. Show through illustration Pavlov’s classical conditioning
experiment. Explain the experiment.
3. Cite some applications and contributions of classical conditioning
to teaching-learning process.
4. What is operant conditioning?
5. Explain Thorndike’s laws of learning.
6. Differentiate classical conditioning from operant conditioning.
7. List some applications of operant conditioning.
B.
Enrichment Activity
Observe a preschooler’s class. Observe how the teacher eliminates
a learned behavior. Give concrete examples and show how this specific
learned behavior can be weakened or eliminated.
References :
Domjan, M. (1993). The Principle of Learning and Behavior 3rd ed., California:
Brooks/ Cole Publishing.
Gines, Adelaida C. et. al. (2002). Educational Psychology, Manila: Rex Book
Store.
Lupdag, Anselmo D. (1984). Educational Psychology, Quezon City: National
Bookstore
Tria, G., Limpingco, D. and Jao L. (1998). Psychology of Learning. Quezon
City: KEN Inc.
Santrock, John W. (2001). Educational Psychology, New York: McGarw Hill
Comp. Inc.
Woolfolk, Anita E., (1998). Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.
MODULE 6
The Learning Process: Views From
The Cognitive Constructivists
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:
1. Differentiate Bruner’s discovery learning from Ausubel’s expository
learning.
2. Discuss Bruner’s three ways of representing objects and events.
3. Explain the different conditions that promote effective discovery learning
Introduction
Even though information processing theorists believe that we actively
construct knowledge based on what we already know and the new
information we encountered, many constructivists believe that information
processing does not take the idea of knowledge construction for enough
(Deny,1992, Garrison,1995 as cited in Woolfolk,1998).
Constructivism is an educational philosophy which holds that learners
ultimately construct their own knowledge that then resides within them, so
that each person’s knowledge is a s unique as him or her (ALN Magazine
1997) . In other words, learners construct knowledge for themselves- each
learner individually and socially constructs meaning- as he or she learns.
In the Constructivist theory, the emphasis is placed on the learner or
the student rather than the teacher. It is the learner who interacts with objects
and events and thereby gains an understanding of the features held by such
objects of events. The learner, therefore, constructs his/ her own
conceptualizations and solutions to problem.
In this module, the noted contributions of Jerome Bruner and David
Ausubel to cognitive constructivism will be discussed.
JEROME BRUNER’S CATEGORIZATION
AND DISCOVERY LEARNING
Jerome Bruner is one of the forerunners of the Cognitive Revolution in
the late 1950’s that was set to replace behaviorism. His most notable
contributions were his ideas about categorization. Bruner maintained that
people interpret the world in terms of similarities and differences which are
detected among objects and events. Objects that are viewed as similar are
placed in the same category. The major variable in his theory of learning is
the coding system into which the learner organizes these categories.
Based upon the idea of categorization, Bruner’s cognitive learning
theory states “ to perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize,
to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize”.
Categorization involves two stages: a) Concept formation which is
the initial understanding that there are different classes and categories and
that there are distinguishing attributes between objects/ events. b) Concept
attainment where one can determine what those particular attributes are and
how they can be used to identify what belongs and what does not.
Bruner believes that all human cognitive activity involve categories.
This is the process of building and using representations in order to make
sense of the world. Either incoming information is organized in terms of preexisting categories or we create new ones.
He also believes that a person has three means of achieving
understanding: enactive, iconic, and symbolic representation. Each of these
modes has its unique way of representing objects and events as cited by
Sprinthall and Sprinthall (2001).
Three Kinds of Representation Identified by Bruner
KINDS OF
REPRESENTATION
Enactive
PROCESS
EXAMPLE
USE
Represented in
the muscle
( doing)
Tying a knot
motor skills
Iconic
Using mental
Having an
sensory skills
image to stand image of what ( mental picture
for objects
the knots look
of things)
like
Symbolic
Using symbol
systems
(thinking
and reasoning)
Describing the
knot and how to
tie it.
Intellectual skills
( knowing the
reality of things)
The first phase is enactive where a child’s world is represented in
terms of their immediate sensation and through which learning is achieved
through doing. These motor acts (know-how) that involve sequential
movements are being integrated by a certain conceptual scheme. When
young children are in this stage of thinking, the best, the most
comprehensible, messages are wordless one.
The second phase is iconic which happens during 2-3 years of
age and involves the use of mental images to stand for certain objects or
events when they are changed in minor ways. Here, objects become
conceivable without action ,children can now draw a spoon , without acting
out the eating process. This is a significant breakthrough in the development
of intellect, for the use of pictures allows children at this stage to be tutored in
simpler ways.
The third phase is the symbolic representation which is the highest
and most complicated manner by which we acquire learning. This phase
starts from age 7 and beyond. Children can now translate experience into
language. It involves the ability to transform action and image into a symbolic
system to encode knowledge. Primarily, these symbols are language and
mathematical notation.
BRUNER’S DISCOVERY LEARNING
Bruner also advocated the discovery oriented learning approach in
schools which he believes would help students discover the relationship
between categories. Discovery learning occurs when students are presented
with problem situations that require them to discuss the essential concepts of
the subject matter ( Bruner, 1960 as cited in McCown,1995).
A teacher who uses a discovery learning approach to instruction
presents examples or problems and then asks students to examine and think
about them inductively with a goal of formulating a general principle. For
example, by experimenting, the students would discover and articulate the
essential properties of salt water and fresh water rather than being told what
they are. Discovery learning encourages students to actively use their
intuition, imagination, and creativity. Because the approach starts with the
specific and then moves to the general, it also facilitates inductive reasoning.
Students are encouraged to discover the facts and relationships
for themselves and continually build on what they already know. The school
curriculum is ideally organized in a spiral manner to facilitate this process,
such as the same topics are redeveloped at succeeding age or grade levels
to progressively reinforce learning ( Bruner, 1996).
What Conditions Promote Effective Discovery Learning
McCown, et. al (1995) discussed the conditions that promote
effective discovery learning.
1. Prior Knowledge
When students have little or no prior knowledge related to principles
they are asked to discover, they can experience frustration and failure. Asking
them to make connections to related ideas as they enter a discovery learning
environment can help students begin to determine what information is
relevant and what steps they should take to solve a problem.
2. Provision of a Model
‘’The constant provision of a model, the constant response to the
individual’s response after response, back and forth between two people,
constitute ‘invention’ learning guided by an accessible model” ( Bruner;
1973).For instance, in teaching the concept of alliteration, the teacher could
provide both examples and non examples and systematically guide students
through an exploration of their similarities and differences. By asking certain
kinds of questions and prompting students to generate hypothesis, the
teacher also models the inquiry process.
3. Use of Contrast to Stimulate Cognitive Conflicts
In science, for example, a teacher could begin a lesson on air
and air pressure with a demonstration that shows water flowing uphill. This is
a surprising event because we are accustomed to the force of gravity causing
water to flow downhill. In trying to resolve the discrepancy , students discover
how air exerts pressure that can overcome the force of gravity.
Relax! Before you move on,
have a break so you’ll
have the needed energy to read
the next topic.
AUSUBEL’S VERBAL LEARNING
AND EXPOSITORY LEARNING
Ausubel’s significant contributions are the following (McCown 1995):
Theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning
David Paul Ausubel contributed much to cognitive learning theory in
his explanation of meaningful verbal learning on cognitive structures, which
he saw as the predominant method of classroom learning. This theory deals
mostly with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful materials from
verbal and textual lessons in school. To Ausubel , the stimulus or concept
gains meaning when it is related to an idea that is already present in the
mind. Thus, there must be something in the learner’ cognitive structure to
which it can be related. He believed that a signifier ( i.e. word) has a meaning
when its effect upon the learner is equivalent to the effect of the object it
signifies. He described three main categories on meaningful reception of
information.
1. Representation- the meaning of a single word or symbol is learned.
2. Conceptual – the learner begins to recognize the features or
attributes of a concept.
3. Prepositional – the learner combines words and/ or symbols to form
new ideas.
Subsumption Process
A subsumer is a concept similar to schema or coding system. It
leads us to think of cognitive structure as a type or organization where higher
level concepts incorporate or ‘subsume” other ideas. In describing the
process of subsumption, Ausubel contended that the most important single
factor in influencing learning is what the learner already knows.
Derivative subsumption occurs if the material is similar to existing
structure that could have bee derived directly from it.
Correlative subsumption occurs if the new materials requires an
extension of structure because some of it is entirely new
RECEPTION AND EXPOSITORY TEACHING
Whereas Bruner advocated a discovery approach to meaningful
learning, Ausubel believed that knowledge is best acquired through reception
rather than discovery. Reception learning occurs when students receive the
essential principles or concepts, think about them deductively, and are then
shown how to apply them in specific instances ( Ausubel, Novak, and Hanesian,
1978 as cited in McCown,1995)
For Ausubel, active processing of information occurs when the ideas
presented are well organized and clearly focused. In order to present effectively,
teachers must carefully organize, sequence , and explain the material so that
students can process it efficiently. The kind of instruction that leads to reception
learning is called expository teaching. ( expository means explanation). An
essential element of expository is the advance organizer.
Ausubel proposed his Expository Teaching Model to encourage
meaningful rather than rote reception learning. He believes that learning should
progress deductively- from general to specific- and not inductively as Bruner
recommended.
Advance Organizers
Ausubel’s major contribution is the use of advance organizer. An
advance organizer is information presented prior to learning that assists in
understanding new information by relating it to new existing knowledge
Ausubel, Novak and Hanesian, 1978 as cited in McCown,1995). It is different
from overviews And summaries, which simply emphasize key ideas and are
presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the
materials. He suggests that the lesson always begin with an advance organizeran introductory statement of a relationship of high level concept, broad enough to
encompass all information that will follow.
According to Ausubel (19963), advance organizer usually serve three
purposes:
1. direct attention to what is important in the coming material.
2. highlight relationships among the ideas that will be presented, and
3. remind the student of relevant information already in the memory
.
Learning Activities
A. Answer the following questions:
1.Compare and contrast Bruner’s discovery learning from Ausubel’s expository
teaching. Discuss the advantages of each.
2. Discuss the ways of representing objects and events as identified by Bruner.
3. What are the different conditions that promote effective discovery learning?
B. Enrichment Activity
Read more about advance organizer. Assuming that you are a teacher
and you will be presenting to your class a topic of your choice, prepare an
advance organizer for your presentation of this topic.
References:
ALN Magazine. Volume1, Issue 1. March,1997.
Ausubel, David P. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. New
York: Grune and Statton.
McCown, Rick,et al. 2nd ed.(1995).Educational Psychology . Massachusetts:
Simon and Schuster Comp.
Woolfolk, Anita,E, (1998). Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon
MODULE 7
Basic Concepts On Motivation
Learning Objectives:
After going through this module, you are expected to be able to:
1. Explain how motivation affects learning and performance.
2. Explain and give examples of the different views on the sources of
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
3. List the different sources of motivation within the learner and from the
learning environment
4. Explain the different factors that affect motivation.
5. Device ways on how to enhance your student’s motivation to learn.
Introduction
Are you reading this module because your instructor assigned it? Are
you reading this module because you want to understand why your students
differ in their pursuit of academic achievement? Are you reading this because
you are concerned about motivating your students? What motivates you to do
this? The material in this module will help you understand why and how people
are motivated to learn.
When students develop a motivation to learn, they initiate learning
activities, they stay involved in a learning task, and they exhibit a commitment to
learning ( Ames, 1990). These are all outcomes that we desire of students in
school, and effective school are those that help students, acquire goals, beliefs,
and attributes that will sustain a long-term engagement in learning.
Motivation has become a central construct in both educational and
psychological research for the past sixty years and plays a significant role in
several theories of human development and learning. Motivation is the reason
why people behave the way they do. Motivated behavior is energized, directed,
and sustained ( Santrock,2001)
WAYS ON HOW MOTIVATION AFFECTS LEARNING
Elliot (et.al.,2000) cited four ways on how motivation as an important
psychological construct affects learning and performance.
1. Motivation increases an individual’s energy and activity level ( Pintrich,
Marx Botle, 1993). It influences the extent to which an individual is
likely to engage in a certain activity intensively or half- heartedly.
2. Motivation directs an individual toward certain goals ( Eccles&
Wigfield,1985). It affects choices of people make and the results they
find rewarding.
3. Motivation promotes initiation of certain activities and persistence in
those activities ( Stipek,1998). It increases the likehood that people will
begin something on their own, persist in the face of difficulty, and
resume a task after a temporary interruption.
4. Motivation affects the learning strategies and cognitive processes an
individual employs ( Dweck & Elliott,1983). It increases the likehood
that people will pay attention to something, study and practice it, and try
to learn it in a meaningful fashion. It also increases the likehood that
they will seek help when they encounter difficulty.
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Extrinsic motivation involves external incentives such as rewards and
punishment. Intrinsic motivation is based on internal factors such as selfdetermination, curiosity, challenge , and effort ( Santrock, 2001).
Santrock (2001) discussed the different views
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
on the sources of
Self- Determination and Personal Choice
One view of intrinsic motivation emphasizes self- determination
( deCharms,1984; Deci & Ryan,1994). In this view, students want to
believe that they are regarding something because of their own will.
Researchers have found that students’ internal motivation and
intrinsic interest in school tasks increase when students have some choice
and some opportunities to take personal responsibility for their learning
( Stipek ,1996). For example, in one study, high school science students
who were encouraged to organize their own experiments demonstrated
more care and interest in laboratory work than did their counterparts.
Students were given some choice in the activities they wanted to engage
in and when they would do them.
Optimal Experiences and Flow
Mihaly Csikszentmihayyi (1990, 1993, 2000) has developed the
ideas that are relevant to understanding motivation. People reported that
these optimal experiences involve feelings of deep enjoyment and
happiness. He uses the term flow to describe optimal experiences in life.
He has found that flow occurs most often when people develop a sense of
mastery and are absorbed in a state of concentration while they engage in
an activity.
Perceived levels of challenge and skill can result in different
outcomes. Flow is most likely to occur n areas in which students are
challenged and perceive themselves as having a high degree of skill.
When students ‘ skills are high but the activities provide little challenge,
the result is boredom. When both the challenge and skill levels are low,
students feel apathy. And when students face a challenging task that they
don’t believe they have adequate skills to master, they experience anxiety.
Effects of Rewards
Classroom rewards can be useful ( Eisenberg & Cameron,
1998). Two uses are ( Bandura, 1982; Deci, 1975) 1) as an incentive to
engage in tasks, in which case the goal is to control the student’s behavior
and 2) to convey information about mastery. When rewards convey
information and mastery, they are more likely to promote student feeling of
competence. However, rewards used as incentives lead to perceptions
that the student’s behavior was caused by external rewards, not only by
the students’ own motivation to be competent.
For example, a teacher puts a reward system in place in which the
more works students accomplish, the more points they will earn and these
points can be exchanged for privileges, and thus the students are
motivated. As they accumulate points, students are more likely to be
competent. In contrast, if points are provided simply for spending time on
task, the task might be perceived as a means to an end. In this case,
because the points don’t convey anything about capabilities, students are
likely to perceive the rewards as controlling their behavior.
Thus, rewards that convey information about student’s mastery
can increase intrinsic motivation by increasing their sense of competence.
However, negative feedback, such as criticism, that carries information
that students are incompetent can undermine intrinsic motivation,
especially if students doubt their ability to become competent
(Stipek,1996).
Judy Cameron and W. David Pierce (1996) found that verbal
rewards such as praise and positive feedback can be used to enhance
intrinsic motivation. They also concluded that when tangible rewards such
as gold stars and money were offered contingent on task performance or
given unexpectedly, intrinsic motivation was maintained.
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SOURCES OF MOTIVATION
Many sources of motivation arise from within the learner, but
just as many come from the learning environment. Identifying internal
sources can help us understand why students appear motivated or
unmotivated to engage in certain learning tasks. Understanding these
factors can also aid you in helping students to develop adaptive
motivational patterns. Listed in figure below are various sources of student
motivation to learn ( McCrown,1995).
Within the learner







Personal goals and intention
Biological and psychological
drives and needs
Self- concept, self- esteem, and
self- confidence
Personal
beliefs,
values,
expectations, and explanations
for success or failure
Selfknowledge,
prior
experiences, and sense of selfefficacy
Personality
factors,
e.g.
willingness to undertake risk,
ability to manage anxieties,
curiosity , and persistence in
effort
Emotional states and levels of
arousal
From the Learning Environment









Goals of teachers, parents, and
peers
Classroom goal structures
Outcomes of social interactions
Social and cultural beliefs and
values
Classroom
reinforcements;
incentives
and
disincentive
systems
Instructional stimuli involving
complexity,
novelty,
and
ambiguity
Teachers’
and
others’
expectations of the learner
Performance models
Instructional practices that attract
attention, provide relevance,
foster confidence, and lead to
satisfaction
EVALUATING INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
As cited by Santrock (2001) ,students are more motivated to
learn when they are given choices, become absorbed in challenges that
match their skills, and receive rewards that have informational value but
are not used for control ( Eccles, 2000: Hennesey & Amabile, 1998).
Praise can also enhance student’s intrinsic motivation. Middle school and
high school teachers can benefit students by thinking of ways to make
these school settings more personal, less formal, and more intrinsically
challenging.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Before you move on to the next topics, try to recall the sources
of your motivation as a student when you were in elementary and high
school. Are they still the same at present?
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
FACTORS THAT AFFECT STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION
1. BELIEFS ABOUT KNOWLEDGE and ABILITY
Recent studies investigating the epistemological beliefs of
students reveal that academic performance and motivation are both
related to what students believe about the nature of knowledge. Elliot, et.
al (2000) stated the following four possible beliefs that were hypothesized:
a. Knowledge consist of isolated facts, as opposed to integrated,
complex systems of information .A student with this belief is likely
to seek simple answers to questions and ignore connections across
topics.
b. Belief that knowledge is absolute. Students who believe in the
certainty of knowledge are likely to accept the word of the teacher or
textbook as the authority and not question.
c. Belief that the ability to learn is innate. Students who believe this,
view learning as unaffected by effort or strategic behavior.
d. Belief that learning occurs quickly or not at all, tend to think that
success is unrelated to hard work, so that concentrated effort is a
waste of time.
2. Attribution
Attribution theory states that in their effort to make sense of
their own behavior or performance, individuals are motivated to discover
its underlying causes. Attributions are perceived causes of outcome(
Santrock, 2001).

Bernard Weiner (1986,1992) identified three dimensions of causal
attributions: 1) locus, whether the cause is internal or external to the
actor; 2) stability, the extent to which the cause remains the same or
changes; and 3) controllability, the extent to which the individual can
control the cause. Combinations of these three produce different
explanations of failure and success.

Combinations of Causal Attributions and Explanations for Failure
Combination of Causal Attributions
internal- stable- uncontrollable
internal- stable- controllable
internal- unstable- uncontrollable
internal- unstable- controllable
external- stable- uncontrollable
external- stable- controllable
external –unstable- uncontrollable
external- unstable- controllable
Reasons Students Give for Failure
Low aptitude
Never study
Sick the day of the test
Did not study for this particular test
School has tough requirements
The instructor is biased
Bad luck
Friends failed to help
* Educational psychologists often recommend providing students with a
planned series of experiences in achievement contexts in which modeling,
information about strategies, practice, and feedback are used to help them
1) concentrate on the task at hand rather than worrying about failing, 2)
cope with failures by retracing their steps to discover their mistake or
analyzing the problem to discover another approach, and 3) attribute their
failures to a lack of effort rather than lack of ability ( Brophy,1998; Dweck
& Elliott,1983).
3. SELF- EFFICACY
As cited by Santrock, it is the belief that one can master a
situation and produce positive
outcomes( Bandura,1997,1982). Selfefficacy is the belief that “ I can; helplessness is the belief that “ I cannot “ (
Stipek, 1996). Students with high self- efficacy endorse such statements
that “ I know that I will be able to learn the materials in this class” and “ I
expect to be able to do well at this activity”.
Students’ beliefs about their own ability to perform successfully
influence their motivation. On future tests of this nature, students who
believe they can’t do well will not put forth the effort required to perform well.
Students develop expectations of self- efficacy from a number
of sources. These are the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
simple self-observation
observation of others
encouragement
emotional arousal
A number of good strategies for improving students’ self-efficacy
(Stupek,1996) was enumerated by Santrock, 2001.
Some Good Strategies for Improving Students’ Self- efficacy
1.
2.
3.
4.
Teach students specific strategies, such as outlining and summarizing,
that can improve their ability to focus on their tasks.
Guide students in setting goals, especially in creating short-term goals
after they have made long-term goals.
Give students performance-contingent rewards, which are more likely
to signal mastery.
Combine strategy training with an emphasis on goals, and give
feedback to students on how their learning strategies relate to their
performance.
5.
6.
7.
Provide students with support.
Make sure that students are not overly aroused and anxious. If this is
the case, their self- efficacy diminishes.
Provide students with positive adult and peer models.
5. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS
According to Santrock (2001),an ability attribution for failure
provides learners with a negative self- perception. They have failed and the
reason they have failed is that they lack ability, an internal, stable source.
Students who fail consistently and attribute these failures to causes that
are not under their control can develop a serious motivation problem
called learned helplessness ( Dweck, 1975; Seligman & Meier, 1967)
Students who have learned –helplessness orientation feel that they nothing
they do matters. They tend to attribute failures to reasons that are internal
and stable. For example, “ I do not succeed because I am dumb.
Therefore, nothing I do will improve my situation. I will always fail.”
6. ANXIETY




Santrock (2001) cited the following about anxiety:
Anxiety is a vague, highly unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension.
High anxiety can result from unrealistic parental expectations
Students’ anxiety increases as they get older and face more evaluation,
social comparison , and failure ( for some students).
Anxiety intervention programs linked to the worry- aspect of anxiety
emphasize changing the negative, self- damaging thoughts of anxious
students and replacing them with positive, task- focused thoughts
(Meicehnbaum & Butler, 1980). These programs have been more effective than relaxation programs in benefiting student achievement.
7. IMPACTS of CULTURAL BELIEFS and VALUES on
STUDENT MOTIVATION
Do attributions as defined by Weiner and others exist across cultures?
Weinwer’s attribution theory identifies luck as a major attribution of school
children from England. For children from Shri Lanka, however, luck was not a
frequent attribution, but karma was. This suggests that attribution theory should
be used along classification dimensions that are consistent with the culture of the
child rather than with the culture of the researcher or teacher (McCrown, 1995).
In the Philippines, three dimensions of attribution theory appeared to be
useful in identifying differences between male and female children ( Watkins &
Astilla,1984). For females in this study, attributions that are external and
uncontrollable led to a preference of rote learning approaches. Males on the
other hand, tended more to internal and controllable attributions, which led to an
emphasis on internalizing and approaches to study that resulted in higher
achievement ( McCrown, 1995).
These studies suggest that cultural background influences attributions.
When you see a child’s attributions to gauge motivation, you should take cultural
differences into account ( McCrown.,1995)
Summary
Motivation is an important psychological construct that affects
learning and performance. It increases an individual’s energy and
activity level toward certain goals. Many sources of motivation arise
within the learner, but as many come from the learning environment.
Understanding these factors can aid teachers in helping students to
develop adaptive motivational patterns.There are also factors that
affect students’ motivation- beliefs about knowledge and ability,
attribution, self-efficacy, learned helplessness, anxiety, and cultural
beliefs and values.
The various tasks used in instruction( such as meaningful
learning opportunities), teacher-student relations ( such as giving
students opportunities for responsibility and independence) , and
evaluation/ recognition ( such as recognizing students’ efforts) ,can
influence student’s motivation in areas like intrinsic motivation,
attributions based on effort, and live engagement. It is important to
consider the students’ self- generated motivational beliefs and
performance, as well as the teacher’s expectations.
Learning Activities
A. Test Yourself
Direction: Read and understand each statement below. State whether the
item is correct or incorrect. If the item is incorrect, restructure the sentence to
make it a correct one. Write your answer in the blank space before the number.
___________1. Motivation increases the likehood that people will begin something on their own effort and persist in the face of difficulty.
___________2. High school teachers can benefit students by thinking of ways
to make these school settings more personal, less formal, and
more extrinsically challenging.
___________3. Flow occurs more often when people develop a sense of mastery and are absorbed in a state of concentration while they
engage in an activity.
___________4. When rewards convey information and mastery, they are more
likely to increase student feeling of anxiety.
___________5. When tangible rewards were offered contingent on the task performance or given unexpectedly, intrinsic motivation was maintained.
___________6. Combination of locus, stability, and controllability produce different explanations of failure and success.
___________7. Over aroused and anxious students result to increase of selfefficacy.
___________8. High anxiety can result from unrealistic parental expectations.
___________9. Instructional strategies that emphasize “ I can do it” benefit
students.
___________10. A student with mastery information focuses on the task rather
than on his ability and includes solution on the problem as part
of his strategies.
B. Answer the following questions:
1. Explain how motivation affects learning and performance.
2. Discuss the different views on the sources of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation.
3. List the different sources of motivation which comes from the learner and
from the environment.
4. Discuss the different factors that affect motivation.
B. Enrichment Activities
1. Observe a group of pre-school or elementary students undergoing instruction
or engaging in an activity. Note and list instances where motivation has taken place. Explain why do you consider such as examples of motivation.
Identify also the possible sources of these motivations.
2. Read thoroughly about B. Weiner’s three dimensions of causal attributions
( locus, stability , and controllability). Cite its implication in the teachinglearning process.
3. Go back to enrichment number 1. If you were the teacher during that activity,
how can you enhance your students’ motivation to learn.Devise your own strategies of enhancing your students’ motivation.
.
References
1. Elliot, Stephen N. ,et.al (2000) Educational Psychology .New York. McGraw Hill Comp. Inc.
2. McCrown, Rick, et.al ( 1995) Educational Psychiology. 2nd ed. New York.
Mc-Graw Hill Comp. Inc.
3. Santrock, John W. ( 2001) Educational Psychology. New York. Mc-Graw
Hill Comp. Inc.
MODULE 8
Intelligence : Traditional And
Views
Current
Learning Objectives
After going through this module, you are expected to be able to:
1. Discuss the early views or concepts of intelligence.
2. Explain the Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of intelligence.
3. Discuss the eight types of intelligence of Gardner.
4. Discuss the implication of multiple intelligence theory to teaching and
learning.
Introduction
What does intelligence mean? The idea that people vary in what
we call intelligence has been with us for a long time. Plato discussed similar
variations over 2,000 years ago. Most early theories about the nature of
intelligence involved one or more of the following three themes: 1) the capacity to
learn; 2) the total knowledge a person has acquired; and 3) the ability to adapt
successfully to new situations and to the environment in general (Woolfolk,1998).
In this century, Santrock (2001) claims that there has been
considerable controversy over the meaning of intelligence.In 1986 at a
symposium on intelligence, 24 psychologists offered 24 different views about the
nature of intelligence (Sternberg & Detterman,1986). Over half of the experts did
mention higher level thinking processes such as abstract reasoning, problem
solving, and decision making as important aspects of intelligence- whether it is a
single ability or many separate abilities ( Gustafsson & Undheim, 1996).
This module focuses on the traditional and current definitions of
intelligence.
EARLY VIEWS ON THE CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE
Binet and Stern both focused on a concept of general intelligence, which
Stern called IQ as cited in Elliot (2000). Wechsler believed it is possible and
important to describe both a person’s personal intelligence and more specific
verbal and performance intelligences. He was building on the ideas of Charles
Spearman (1972) who said that people both have a general intelligence which
he called g, and specific types of intelligence, which he called s. As early as the
1930’s, L.L. Thurstone (1938) said people have seven of these abilities, which he
called primary abilities: verbal comprehension, number ability, word fluency,
spatial visualization, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed. More
recently, the search for specific types of intelligence has heated up (Gregory,
2000; Torff, 2000).
GARDNER’S EIGHT FRAMES OF MIND
Howard Gardner (1983, 1993) believes that there are eight types of
intelligence ( Santrock,2001).They are described below:
1) Verbal skills: the ability to think in words and use language to
express meaning ( authors, journalists, speakers)
2) Mathematical skills: the ability to carry out mathematical
operations ( engineers, accountants)
3) Spatial skills: the ability to think three-dimensionally (architects,
artist, sailors)
4) Bodily: kinesthetic skills: the ability to manipulate objects and be
physically adept ( surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, athletes
5) Musical skills: a sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm and tone
( composers, musicians, and sensitive listeners)
6) Interpersonal skills: the ability to understand and effectively
interact with others ( successful teachers, mental health
professionals)
7) Intrapersonal skills: the ability to understand oneself and
effectively direct one’s life ( theologians, psychologists)
8) Naturalist skills: the ability to observe patterns in nature and
understand natural and human-made systems ( farmers,
botanists, ecologists, landscapers)
Gardner says that the different forms of intelligence can be destroyed by
brain damage, that each involves unique cognitive skills, and that each shows up
in unique ways in both the gifted and idiot savants.
STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY
According to Robert J. Sternberg’s (1986) triarchic theory of
intelligence, intelligence comes in three forms: analytical, creative , and
practical intelligence ( Woolfolk, 1998)
.
1. Analytical intelligence- involves the ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare , and contrast
2. Creative intelligence – consists of the ability to create, design, invent,
originate, and imagine
3. Practical intelligence – focuses on the ability to use, apply, implement
and put into practice.
Some students are equally high in all three areas; other do well in one
or two.
As cited by Santrock (2001), Sternberg (1997a,1999,2000; Sternberg,
Torff, & Grigorenko, 1998) says that students with different triarchic patterns
“look different” in school. Students with high analytical ability tend to be favored
in conventional schooling. They often do well in direct instruction in which the
teachers lectures and students are given objective/ tests. They often are
considered to be smart students who get good grades, show up in high level
tracks, do well on traditional tests of intelligence, and later get admitted to
competitive colleges.
Students who are high in creative intelligence often are not on the top
rung of their class. Sternberg says that creatively intelligent students, instead of
giving conformist answers, they give unique answers for which they sometimes
get reprimanded or marked down.
Students with high practical intelligence often do not relate well to the
demands of school. However, they often do well outside the classroom. They
might have excellent social skills and good common sense. As adults, they
sometime become successful managers, entrepreneurs, or politicians, despite
undistinguished school records.
Sternberg believes that few tasks are purely analytical. Most require
some combination of these skills. For example, when students write a book
report, they might 1) analyze the book’s main themes 2) generate new ideas
about how the book might have been written better, and 3) think about how the
book’s themes can be applied to peoples ‘ lives.
Sternberg believes it is important in teaching to balance instruction
related to the three types of intelligence. That is, students should be given
opportunities to learn through analytic, creative, and practical thinking, in addition
to conventional strategies that focus on simply “learning” and remembering a
body of information.
EVALUATING THE MULTIPLE-INTELLIGENCE APPROACHES
Many educators believe that Sternberg and Gardner’s approaches
have much to offer. These approaches have stimulated teachers to think
more broadly about what makes up a student’s competencies, and they
have motivated educators to develop programs that instruct students in
multiple domains. They also have contributed to the interest in assessing
intelligence and classroom learning in innovative ways that go beyond
conventional standardized paper- and pencil memory tasks.
Some critics say that classifying musical skills as a main type of
intelligence is off base, because it seems to imply that many other skill
domain also should be classified that way. For example, there are
outstanding chess players, writers, politicians, and poets- yet do not refer
to chess intelligence, and son on . Other critics say that research has not
yet been done to support the thesis that Sternberg’s three intelligencers and
Gardner’s eight intelligences are the best ways to categorize intelligence
(Santrock, 2001).
You have just finished reading another module.
Relax your muscles. Take a deep breath
before doing the short activity at the end of
this module.
Learning Activity
Answer the following questions.
1.Discuss the early views on intelligence.
2. Explain the Triarchic theory of intelligence.
3. Identify and discuss the eight types of intelligence according to Gardner .
References
Elliot, Stephen, et al. (2000). Educational Psychology. New York. McGrawHill Comp. Inc.
Santrock, John W.( 2001) Educational Psychology . New York. McGraw- Hill
Hill Comp. Inc.
Woolfolk, Anita (1998) Educational Psychology . Massachusetts. Allyn &
Bacon
MODULE 9
Andragogy: Concepts, Approaches, and
Principles of Adult Learning
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module , you are expected to be able to:
1. Define andragogy and pedagogy.
2. Differentiate the basic assumptions of andragogy and pedagogy.
3. Cite some characteristics of adult learners and discuss their implications
to teaching.
4. Explain the seven elements of the andragogical process.
5. Summarize some adult learning principles.
Introduction
Andragogy is the science and the art of teaching adults. This module
presents differences between andragogy and pedagogy, the characteristics of
adult learners, the elements of the andragogical process and a summary of
principles of adult learning.
Training and technology transfer programs and activities are often
directed to adult populations. It is important to know the assumptions about how
adults learn and their characteristics to enable us to plan approaches and
strategies suited to them.
FROM PEDAGOGY TO ANDRAGOGY
EXPOSITORY TEACHING
Andragogy is the art and science of teaching adults. It came from the
Greek word stem andr meaning adult and agogos meaning leading. Pedagogy is
the science and art of teaching children. It came from the Greek stem paid
meaning child and agogos meaning leading.
In 1950, Malcolm S. Knowles published a book called Adult Education
and listed a number of principles that applied to teaching adults. In his most
recent book, The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to
Andragogy, he compared the two models.
Table 1.Basic Assumptions Which Differentiates Andragogy from Pedagogy
1. Self- concept
2. Role of the learner’s
experience
3. Readiness to learn
4.Time Perspective
5. Motivation to learn
ADULT LEARNING
( Andragogy)
Autonomous; makes own
decisions; teacher
facilities
Adults have varied life
experiences which are
rich resource of learning
Adults know what they
want to learn. Facilitator
helps learners diagnose
learning needs
Adults want to apply
learning to life/ work:
“here and now”,problem
–centered
Internal motivators like
recognition, self-esteem
are
more
potent
motivators
CHILD LEARNING
( Pedagogy)
Dependent; guided by
adults; teacher more
directive
Children have limited
experience, teacher is
primary resource learning
Curriculum is set by the
teacher ( what top learn
and when and how
learning will take place)
Children learn for the
future; subject- centered
External motivators like
grades, praise, etc.,work
best
Table 2. Characteristics of Adults and their Teaching Implications
Instructor’s Response
Encourage discussion and trainee
contribution
Self- directed; autonomous
Share objectives and goals with
trainees;
Let
them
evaluate
their
own
performance
Task-oriented
Emphasize relevance of content to job;
Establish the need to know
Anxious, cautious in new situation
Provide reinforcement, encouragement
Easily discouraged; fearful or failure
Foster
sense
of
achievement;
discourage excessive competition
Lacks confidence in ability to learn
Provide over learning, plenty of
practice
Resistant to change/ innovation
Stress “ need” to know for any new
material
Expect good instruction
Come to class well prepared
Self- esteem based on experience and Respect trainee’s age and experience
past achievement
Lack recent study experience
Be patient
Characteristics
Possess reservoirs of experience
ELEMENTS OF THE ANDRAGOGICAL PROCESS DESIGN
1. Climate setting
Climate conducive to learning should be provided. The physical
environment should be comfortable. The psychological climate should be
characterized by mutual respect, collaborativeness, mutual trust,
supportiveness, openness, pleasure, and humaneness.
2. Involving learners in mutual planning
Learners should be involved in planning their learning experiences.
People tend to be committed in the activity if they have a part in decisionmaking.
3. Involving participants in diagnosing their own needs
Teachers should help learners clarify their own aspirations, diagnose
the gaps between their aspirations and their recent level of performance.
4. Involving learners in formulating learning objectives
The learner should be involved in formulating learning objectives in
which the needs of students, the institution, the teachers, and of the subject
matter are taken into account. They should know their goals and the steps
necessary to reach these goals.
5. Involving learners in designing learning planning
Teachers should assist learners identify resource and devise
strategies for using these resources to accomplish their objectives.
6. Helping learners carry out their learning plans
Teachers should assist students in their individual needs. Option
available to the learners should be explored. Opportunities for
experimentation should be provided. Learning should proceed at the learner’s
own pace.
7. Involving learners in evaluating their learning
Adults learn more effectively if they receive feedback about their
progress. They should also have a sense of their own accomplishment since
this is an important motivation for learning.
In andragogical model, the role of the facilitator ( i.e. teacher) is
primarily that of a designer and manager of the processes and procedures
that will facilitate acquisition of content, and secondly as a content resource.
SUMMARY OF ADULT LEARNING PRINCIPLES
In his most recent publication. Knowles (1996) summarizes some
adult learning principles:
1. Adults need to know why they should learn something.
2. Adults have a deep need to be self- directed.
3. Adults have a greater volume and different quantity of experience
than youth.
4. Adults become ready to learn when they experience in their life
situation a need to know or be able to do in order to perform more
effectively and satisfyingly.
5. Adults enter into a learning situation with a atsk or problem orientation
to learning.
6. Adults are motivated to learn by both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators.
Tony Powell and George Aker in their “ Teaching and Learning in Adult
Basic Education” gave the following principles of adult learning:
1. Adults learn better when they are actively involves in the learning process.
2. Adult can learn materials that apply to their daily lives more quickly than
they can learn irrelevant
3. Adults will accept new ideas quickly if these ideas support previous
beliefs.
4. Adults needs and background must be understood and integrated into his
learning experiences as much as possible.
5. Undereducated adults should have a successful learning experience
before they are introduces to new materials.
6. Adults should be rewarded for success and should never feel as if they
are punished for making a mistake.
7. adults should always know why they are learning and towards what goal
they are moving.
Learning Activities
A. Activity Dyad
Select a partner whom you are most comfortable with and
discuss your worries and concerns as an adult learner .
B. Answer the following questions:
:
1. What is pedagogy?
2. Who is the main advocate of pedagogy?
3. In what ways do adult learners differ from children? In what ways
are they alike?
4. Cite some characteristics of adult learners and discuss their
implications to teaching.
5. Explain the seven elements of the andragogical process design.
References:
Corsey, Peter, ed. 1986. Agricultural Trainer Development: Instructor’s Manual.
Published by International Training Division. Office of the International
Cooperation and Development, USDA in Cooperation with AID.
Knowles, Malcolm. 1984. Andargogy in Action. Applying Modern Principles of
Adult Learning. California, Jossey Bass, Inc.
______.1996. “ Adult Learning” In the ASTD Training and Development
Handbook. A Guide to Human Resource, 4th ed. Robert Craig, ed., New
York: McGraw Hill.
McCaffery, James A. 1986. Instructional Effectiveness: A reconsideration of
Cross- Cultural Orientation and Training. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Vol. 10. pp.159-179.
Fundamentals of Classroom Instructions. 1983. GP Courseware