Instructional Strategies
Final Project
EdSe 4501: Educational Psychology
Dr. Dan Glisczinski
Monday, December 17, 2007
Instructional Strategies
Table of Contents
Teaching Philosophy -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- page 2
Conceptual Maps ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- page 3
How can concept mapping develop Habits of Mind?-------------------------- page 3
How can concept mapping foster multi-domain learning? ------------------- page 5
How can concept mapping utilize individual differences? -------------------- page 8
How can concept mapping promote motivation? ------------------------------ page 9
How can concept mapping create learning environments? ------------------ page 9
KWL ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- page 11
How can KWL develop Habits of Mind? ------------------------------------------- page 11
How can KWL foster multi-domain learning?--------------------------------------page 13
How can KWL utilize individual differences? -------------------------------------- page 14
How can KWL promote motivation? ------------------------------------------------ page 14
How can KWL create learning environments? ------------------------------------ page 14
PowerPoint Lecture ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- page 15
How can PowerPoint lectures develop Habits of Mind? --------------------- page 15
How can PowerPoint lectures foster multi-domain learning? --------------- page 16
How can PowerPoint lectures utilize individual differences? ---------------- page 17
How can PowerPoint lectures promote motivation? -------------------------- page 18
How can PowerPoint lectures create learning environments? --------------- page 18
Storytelling ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------page 19
How can storytelling develop Habits of Mind? ---------------------------------- page 19
How can storytelling foster multi-domain learning? ---------------------------- page 20
How can storytelling utilize individual differences? ----------------------------- page 21
How can storytelling promote motivation? --------------------------------------- page 22
How can storytelling create learning environments? --------------------------- page 22
Labs ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- page 24
How can labs develop Habits of Mind? -------------------------------------------- page 24
How can labs foster multi-domain learning? -------------------------------------- page 26
How can labs utilize individual differences? --------------------------------------- page 27
How can labs promote motivation? ------------------------------------------------- page 27
How can labs create learning environments? ------------------------------------- page 28
Bibliography -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- page 30
1
Teaching Philosophy
My personal teaching philosophy reflects the interests of the diverse community of
students who are integrated into school systems across the United States. During my
teaching career, I intend to create an effective learning environment in which students of
diverse backgrounds will take an interest in Earth and space science. I plan to achieve
this by facilitating interesting lessons containing relevant concepts to the students. “Why
should I care?” is the question I hope to answer.
Relating multicultural backgrounds to science is a primary goal for me as a science
teacher. The stereotypical scientist is often described as a white male in a lab coat. I
intend to incorporate Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) into my lessons to present
the idea to students that science did not merely originate from white men, but was
instead influenced by (and accomplished by) a variety of cultures prior to the existence
[idea] of science. With this in mind, I hope to provide opportunities to students in a way
that broadens their prospects.
Finally, I aim to achieve a positive student/teacher rapport not only to have an
understanding with students, but to maintain classroom management. By earning the
respect and knowledge of students, classroom management becomes that much easier,
and could be recognized as an effective learning environment. My intentions with
maintaining classroom management, is to produce excitement from the students when it
comes to learning about science and apply it to common occurrences relevant to their
way of life.
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Conceptual Maps
…are ways of connecting various topics (or concepts) through a diagram. Concept
mapping is a way to organize and relate topics in a way that transferring information to
an outline (or paper format) is made simple.
How can concept mapping develop Habits of Mind?
Desirable Habits of Mind that may be developed through concept mapping
include thinking flexibly; metacognition; applying past knowledge to new situations;
thinking and communicating with clarity and precision; and creating, imagining, and
innovating. In a science class, all of the previously named Habits of Mind are critical (or
highly recommended) to understand the concept and topics in science. Without being
able to think flexibly while creating a concept map, connections between topics may be
difficult to construct and modify. According to Costa and Kallick, people’s ability to
change their mind influences their capability to acquire more information. When
scientists are conducting an experiment based on inquiry, a flexible mind is necessary
when thinking of new ways to come to a theory or law describing the different ways our
Earth functions.
Costa and Kallick also describe how applying past knowledge to new situations
promotes the ability to perform similar tasks efficiently. Thomas A. Edison once said,
“I’ve never made a mistake. I’ve only learned from experience.’
With this in mind, concepts maps do require the use of previously learned knowledge in
order to link certain topics together. By becoming experienced with concept mapping,
students would be able to consider this method as they study. If they are unsure of
similarities between ideas, subjects, concepts, and/or topics, students may apply their
experience with concept mapping to understand and map out a visual diagram
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pertaining to the subject of study. Applying past knowledge to new situations is also
evidenced in scientific experiments. Why would you never want expose your skin to
hydrochloric acid? Apply your past knowledge and experience to come to a solution.
Students can develop these habits of mind throughout a science course. The way
concept mapping is introduced could prove to be very critical for students to be able to
understand the model and its purpose. Perhaps start concept mapping by preparing a
diagram ahead of time, and start the concept map for them. When concept mapping is
used thereafter, allow students to use more of their own imagination and creativity each
time. Provide blank sheets of paper for them to construct their own concept map; this
would allow them to organize their thoughts according to their individual way of
learning.
This instance is where metacognition is demonstrated. According to Plato,
“When the mind is thinking it is talking to itself.”
Metacognition could be characterized as students plan a concept map (or plan of action);
are able to reflect on their plan; and may evaluate the excellence of their plan upon
completion. To do this, students can use concept mapping as a way to study for an
assessment. If the concept map was created successfully, students could have a higher
chance of receiving an excellent grade.
Undesirable Habits of Mind that may result from the use of concept mapping
include frustration; the willingness to give up; confusion in regards to the purpose of
concept mapping; the thought of “what’s the point?”; and impatience. All of these
undesirable characteristics could easily be displayed by students when concept mapping is
used.
Socratic Habits of Mind are those that involve intellectual thought. The process is
similar to the scientific method, however involves much more philosophy. The Socratic
Method persuades students to contemplate resolutions through conceptual thinking. By
incorporating critical thought into a task, students are able to jog their brain and perhaps
their memory (which would inevitably benefit for mapping concepts). Socratic Habits of
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mind help to develop metacognition, and apply their previously learned knowledge
(both of which are desirable habits of mind) to complete a task.
How can concept mapping foster multi-domain learning?
Concept mapping is able to touch base on several domains of learning. To begin,
one domain of learning is cognitive. The cognitive domain involves knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Concept mapping begins
by having a base of knowledge with which to build upon through concept organization.
With concept mapping, students may be able to sustain a longer memory.
A student’s ability to comprehend and understand their knowledge is also
accomplished or demonstrated in concept mapping. As students build upon a concept
map, they are deciphering and construing new knowledge by linking concepts together
and organizing them into larger, “family” groups. For example, if there were the
following terms presented to a student, they could easily place them into different
“families” to help organize their differences and similarities:
Mixed word bank:
Microscope
Safety Goggles
Protective Gloves
Graduated Cylinder
Beaker
Eye-wash Station
Organized word bank:
Microscope
Safety Goggles
Graduated Cylinder
Protective Gloves
Beaker
Eye-wash Station
The previous terms are organized into groups of safety equipment and laboratory
equipment. Thus, this lesson plan could be based off of science equipment. This is an
example of comprehension.
When a student applies their knowledge, they are able to use the new concept to
their advantage, or to solve problems. By have the knowledge base, they can apply this
to creating a concept map and connecting concepts. The above word bank organization
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method also demonstrates analysis by separating concepts into different groups to
understand their relationships.
Synthesis is epitomized by the design of their concept map. Literally, synthesis
calls for the combination of concepts to create new knowledge. Synthesis consists of
composing, designing, and planning. Rearranging is another aspect of synthesis and
could be easily used in creating concepts maps as concepts become more clear and are
able to connect with several relevant topics. All of these characteristics pertain to
concept mapping.
Another domain of learning is the affective domain. According to Krathwol and
Masia, concept mapping meets the affective domain by two main descriptors: receiving
phenomena and organization. As students learn new knowledge, they may respond to
this by listening and recalling information. This process is depicting within the concept
map. Did they listen intently, or did they demonstrate selective hearing? Were they able
to use their knowledge to construct an effective concept map? These questions are
answered by how they receive the knowledge.
Students learn organization through concept mapping by discovering the
differences between certain topics. Krathwol and Masia described organization to have
an emphasis on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. By doing this, an effective
concept map is created, as relations (or connections) are made.
The third learning domain, according to Bloom’s taxonomy is that of
psychomotor. The psychomotor domain is achieved initially through imitation, then by
manipulation, precision, articulation, and naturalization. Initially, after working through
a concept map, students are imitating the work shown to them. By providing them with
a diagram characteristic of an “ideal” concept map, they are more than likely going to
copy the idea, as it is how they learned to map concepts. After the process of imitation
is completed, manipulation takes place. According to R. H. Dave’s adaptation to
Bloom’s Taxonomy, manipulation consists of a student working independently and
reproducing instructions. This would probably be exemplified once students understand
the purpose of concept mapping and are motivated to carry out the task. It is also
related to logical learning, as researched by Howard Gardner in multiple intelligences.
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By learning logically, students are exploring new ways of reasoning and are
solving problems. A concept map is, in a way, a puzzle or problem to be solved; or at
least could be employed to boast such an aspect by adjusting the process by which it is
taught. For example, during my apprenticeship I utilized a concept map in one of my
lessons. I provided an already-made diagram with a few words already in the concept
map to start the students off. I gave them a word bank to go by (already organized) and
allowed them to fill in the rest of the blanks. It was a challenging puzzle for them to
complete and they were engaged in the process. By observing this, I concluded many of
the students learned logically.
Following manipulation is precision. R. H. Dave describes precision as the ability
to perform a task without assistance. Individual work would assist in achieving this step
in the psychomotor domain. Intrapersonal learning, according to Gardner, is similar to
manipulation in that students work alone, and pursue their own way of learning.
Articulation follows manipulation and calls for the student to integrate their own
expertise to improve a method of mapping concepts. Finally, naturalization integrates
articulation in the design of an effective concept map, specific to that student’s learning
process.
One thing to consider when assigning student’s individual work is their role in the
developmental stages of Erik Erikson. When students reach middle school, they are just
entering the “Adolescence” stage in which their most important relationships are with
their peers. By incorporating cooperative learning into mapping concepts, students
continue to build upon their relationships and strengthen their devotion to friends. On a
more personal note, I preferred cooperative learning groups when I was in middle
school. It allowed me to collaborate with my friends and peers and gain ideas from
them. I learned everyone has different views or ideas towards topics; this proved useful
for several assignments and/or tasks where input was needed.
How can concept mapping utilize individual differences?
Concept mapping may be carried out either individually or cooperatively.
Through cooperative learning, students would gain input from their peers and discover
new ways of organizing information. According to Johnson and Johnson, cooperative
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learning could influence how students improve interdependence, individual and/or
group accountability, group processing, social skills, and face to face interaction; all of
which are known as PIGS FACE, for short.
By making concept mapping a cooperative learning activity, students could
definitely demonstrate PICS FACE as they have face to face interaction with their peers;
improve their social skills by incorporating ideas from their peers; participate in group
processing; and learn what group accountability is all about. When in a group, everyone
should have an important role with which to achieve and/or carry. If conflict arises (as is
the case for many group activities), competition may result which makes cooperative
learning much more difficult!
And so, to meet the needs of all students perhaps determine the effectiveness of
cooperative learning groups and decide whether or not that would be useful for concept
mapping. If so, students need not depend on each other to finish a task, but could
merely depend on each other for ideas.
When meeting the needs of how students learn individually, concept mapping
may lack many of the multiple intelligences by Gardner. As stated previously, concept
mapping primarily involves intrapersonal and logical learning. Students who learn in a
kinesthetic fashion, which may consist of a large majority of student population, may not
learn through concept mapping as effectively. However, during my lesson at the
apprenticeship site, I did attempt to incorporate movement. I asked students to come up
to the white board at the front of the room where I had a replica of their diagram on
their worksheets. They were to then fill in the blanks on the board. Perhaps by
incorporating such simple movement, students were able to focus that much more.
How does concept mapping promote motivation?
According to Alfie Kohn, the roots of motivation in a classroom consist of
collaboration, content, and choice. Concept mapping can certainly incorporate each of
the “3 C’s” of motivation. By providing opportunities for students to collaborate while
they map concepts, students are able to (as stated before) gain ideas from their peers and
perhaps integrate those new ideas into their organizational methods. This way, students
are able to help each other succeed via cooperative learning. With successful
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collaboration, the idea of one student “taking the reins” and another “hitchhiking” could
be eliminated.
Helping students to understand the value of concept mapping and how it adds to
their growth of knowledge promotes motivation through content. According to Alfie
Kohn,
“…children do not need to be motivated. From the beginning they are hungry to make
sense of their world…students of any age will generally exhibit an abundance of
motivation and a healthy appetite for challenge.”
From the above statement, children are naturally motivated to learn. They want to
understand the world they were brought in to. If students can appreciate how concept
mapping has the potential to help them understand various concepts, and their
differences and similarities, a unit and/or lesson could make much more sense to them.
Providing the option for students to make their own choices while mapping
concepts may give them a sense of independence as they become empowered to make
their own decisions. While concept mapping may not grant students “almighty power”
in decision making, it is something simple to give them the chance to make their own
choices on how to organize information that could reward them later.
How can concept mapping create a learning environment?
Creating a comfortable learning environment for students is one of the most
important aspects to a classroom. If students are uncomfortable, they may become
distracted from a lesson and perform poorly in a class. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a
great reference to maintain a comfortable learning environment. Maslow depicts needs
in a pyramidal diagram with physiological needs on the bottom of the pyramid and
psychological needs on the top. Producing an environment that first meets the
physiological needs is the beginning of a comfortable learning environment.
Physiological needs can include food and water. Throughout Ordean Middle School,
teachers provide water for their students in the classroom. They do this because they
believe if a student is falling asleep or is not paying attention, a small drink of water
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feeds their brain the hydration it needs. This method has worked thus far for them,
however some students tend to take advantage of the strategy and use their “thirst” as an
excuse for their boredom.
After meeting physiological needs in a classroom, meeting the psychological needs
is the next step. Psychological needs may include having a sense of belonging and safety
within a classroom. By including cooperative learning as a regular part of a curriculum, a
sense of belonging may be achieved. Other psychological needs met by concept
mapping may include a feeling of achievement upon completion. By solving problems
of concept mapping creatively and effectively, students may reach self-actualization. By
doing this, students are learning awareness, honesty, freedom, and trust either through
cooperative learning or individual work.
Assisting students in creating concept maps in ways that benefit most could help
build positive student/teacher rapport. Giving students that extra encouragement and
push to achieve and complete challenging tasks may increase the amount of trust they
have in the teacher; and realization of the value and benefits concept mapping can have
to the growth of their knowledge.
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KWL
What do you know about this topic?
What do you want to know about this topic?
What did you learn about this topic?
KWL is a teaching strategy not only used to jog a students brain, but to give teachers an
idea of where students’ understanding is at, in regards to the topic at hand. Before
introducing or teaching a topic, ask students to write on a piece of paper (or provide
paper for them) what they already know about a topic, such as zebra mussels for
example. Then, ask them to write what they want to know about zebra mussels.
Following the lesson or unit, ask students to write on the same piece of paper noting
what they learned about zebra mussels. This helps in knowing if further instruction is
required.
How can KWL develop Habits of Mind?
Desirable Habits of Mind developed by KWL, according to Costa and Kallick,
include metacognition, and questioning and posing problems. As stated by Costa and
Kallick,
“…metacognition is our ability to know what we know and what we don’t know.”
The above statement pertains to the first two parts of KWL. What do you already
know? What would you like to learn? During my apprenticeship at Ordean Middle
School, I incorporated this into one of my lesson plans on zebra mussels. Before I started
teaching them the basics of zebra mussels and their harmful affects to our local waters, I
asked students to write what they already know about these creatures, and what they
would like to know. If given more time, I would have collected the papers to be sure I
was touching on the points of interest. This Habit of Mind helps teachers to develop a
plan of action as to where the lesson should bring students in regards to the amount of
knowledge they attain. Thus, this strategy is beneficial for students and teachers, alike.
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Questioning and posing problems are important aspects in the field of science.
Costa and Kallick point out the distinguishing feature between humans and other forms
of life to be,
“…our inclination, and ability to FIND problems to solve.”
The second step to the KWL is to ask questions. Students at my apprenticeship site asked
several different questions concerning zebra mussels. How did they get here? Why are
zebra mussels such a big problem? Are zebra mussels related to clams? These kinds of
questions jogs students’ brains and get them thinking about the topic that is to be
studied.
Questioning and posing problems is also related to the Socratic Method, as stated
before. Socrates was a brilliant philosopher whom encouraged the “art” of questioning
to develop knowledge. Asking students to question what they know, meets the Socratic
way of learning.
Undesirable Habits of Mind resulting from KWL may be discouragement and/or
the inability to process thoughts. As discussed in General Methods class, students may
become discouraged if they know nothing about a topic, or are simply unable to write
well. A student I had during my apprenticeship handed her paper to me after class with
the following written on it:
What do I know? I don’t know anything.
What do I want to learn? I don’t want to learn anything.
What did I learn? Nothing, nothing.
I learned later the student has self-esteem problems. She is very self-conscience in regards
to what others think of her. This is a problem that may occur as KWL is assigned during
a class. She may also have hard time processing her thoughts. Perhaps she felt pressured
to think quickly and became flustered. With this experience, I learned that allowing
students more time to process their thoughts may impede frustration, whether or not
they have a disability (for lack of a better term).
How can KWL foster multi-domain learning?
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KWL touches on all domains, however not as thoroughly as concept mapping. In
Bloom’s affective domain, KWL falls under the categories of responding to phenomena,
valuing, and internalizing values. Students can demonstrate how they respond to
phenomena by how they participate in an activity. It gives them a chance to “show me
what they’ve got” and tell me what they would like to learn.
Students demonstrate value by explaining and sharing their knowledge to an
instructor, as KWL asks. Finally, students internalize values by questioning their
knowledge. What do I really want to know about zebra mussels? How will I benefit
from this lesson? Will zebra mussels have any affect on my life style? These questions
may not be exactly what students are asking, but could be relevant to how they
construct values. The concept of how students internalize their values is related to
Kohlberg’s stage of pre-conventional moral development. This stage calls for students to
question what is in their best interest. Why do I care about zebra mussels? This is the
kind of question students may ask at this stage.
KWL primarily touches on knowledge and comprehension in Bloom’s cognitive
domain. When students are asked what they know about a topic, recalling previously
learned material is involved. Students demonstrate comprehension, especially with a
lesson on invasive species like zebra mussels, when they are to make sense out of, and
understand the destruction zebra mussel’s cause.
Comprehension and knowledge are the lowest levels of understanding, according
to Bloom’s taxonomy, and especially pertain to KWL’s. Higher levels of knowledge are
attained throughout a lesson and further along during more advanced school years.
In Bloom’s psychomotor domain, KWL barely focuses on any categories.
Precision and articulation are what KWL may emphasize. Precision would be emphasized
and demonstrated as students perform their task independently. This would involve
complete understanding of the task. Articulation would be demonstrated upon
completion of the KWL, as students improve their knowledge of a topic.
How can KWL utilize individual differences?
According to Gardner’s multiple intelligences, KWL only emphasizes intrapersonal
learning. Although KWL is a mere introductory and concluding teaching method,
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students are able to at least use this strategy to contemplate their own interests and
personalize the assignment by allowing it to be relevant to their concerns. For the most
part, KWL accentuates the knowledge students have at that time of day about a certain
topic. It could present individual differences in that everyone may know more or less
than their peers. It does not involve cooperative learning; however the actual lesson
may involve an activity that does.
How can KWL promote motivation?
During my apprenticeship, I attempted to promote motivation by creating a
“suspenseful” atmosphere. I originally projected a photo of zebra mussels at the front of
the room and asked the students to identify the specimen. What is this a picture of?
They easily identified the zebra mussel. Then, I asked them to do a KWL before we got
into any fascinating information. This incredibly suspenseful method seemed to grab
their attention at the start of photos showing shopping carts covered in zebra mussels,
and beaches consisting completely of zebra mussel shells. The interesting and bizarre
photos seemed to interest the students, thus promoted questioning.
Getting back on the subject of KWL’s, students are able to choose what they want
to learn by sharing with the instructor what they already know, and want to know. This
is where Alfie Kohn’s power of choice takes place. Empowering students to develop the
lesson plan through guidance helps them to become interested in the material, because
they are essentially choosing what they want to learn. This is in accordance with
Newmann’s authentic pedagogy as well. Students may engage in a topic that is relevant
to their lives outside of school if given the opportunity to ask questions.
How can KWL create learning environments?
Educational Psychology class discussed the meaning of practice theory in that
“lame learning environments = lame learning.” The practice theory emphasizes an
effective learning environment to be of interest to the students. By incorporating what
they want to know into a lesson, a learning environment may be progressed and
improved that much more. The practice theory also investigates individuals’ social
interactions within an environment. The KWL initially emphasizes individual learning.
Thus, by merely using KWL as an introductory and concluding teaching method,
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knowledge would be built upon more if followed by a PowerPoint lecture, science lab,
concept mapping, and/or story.
PowerPoint Lecture
…is a way of lecturing to students. PowerPoint lectures may contain visuals, such as
diagrams, photos, and links to external sources (e.g. youtube). PowerPoint lectures also
contain key concepts that are important for students to know and focus on. It is a useful
and more effective way of presenting information to students as opposed to “regular”
note-taking lectures without visuals.
How can PowerPoint lectures develop Habits of Mind?
Habits of Mind developed through PowerPoint lectures may include thinking and
communicating with clarity and precision; and responding with wonderment and awe.
With all lectures, communicating information to students is an important process, and
must be done with clarity. As Costa and Kallick said,
“When you hear fuzzy language, it is a reflection of fuzzy thinking.”
Presenting clear and understandable information to students is what helps them to
succeed in a given subject, and remain interested. From personal experience, it is hard to
remain calm, cool, and collected when an instructor is difficult to understand. During my
freshman year of college, I had an instructor from Indonesia. My inability to
comprehend what he was saying greatly affected my performance in the class. Thus, this
is an important Habit of Mind to possess and pass along. With PowerPoint lectures,
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information is not only stated through explanations and clarifications, but with visuals
and evidence to support and guide lectures.
During my apprenticeship, I attempted to present information to students so they
would respond with wonderment and interest. I gave two PowerPoint lectures
introducing topics (zebra mussels and sea lampreys), and presenting interesting facts
through images. I was able to provide an opportunity for students to feel compelled and
eager to learn more. By developing this desirable Habit of Mind, students could remain
in school and continue learning about everything that fascinates them.
To sustain the development of desirable Habits of Mind, a few factors should be
considered:
Do not allow a PowerPoint to get too “wordy”…this could cause students to
loose interest in the topic at hand.
When necessary, allow students time to take notes from a PowerPoint lecture. Do
not talk while they are taking notes, as they are likely to miss important
information that is said.
Do not read directly from the PowerPoint. The point to make here is
communicating directly with the students; grab their attention and hold on to it.
Without considering the above factors, students may easily develop undesirable Habits of
Mind such as boredom and sleepiness, frustration, and reluctance to learn.
How can PowerPoint lectures foster multi-domain learning?
Krathwol and Masia present Bloom’s taxonomy through the affective domain.
PowerPoint lectures meet the affective domain through receiving phenomena;
responding to phenomena; and internalizing values. When creating PowerPoint lectures,
be sure to include visuals to keep students’ interest. This would provide them a chance
to receive phenomena and remember information that is presented to them. During a
sea lamprey lesson plan, for example, I displayed to students the damage sea lampreys
are capable of if/when they attack fish. Most of the girls and boys responded to this
wonderment with “gross” and “cool”, respectively. This showed me, through their
response that they were listening and paying attention to me.
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Students are able to internalize values when they are cooperating in class
discussions, and are able to control their behavior during PowerPoint lectures.
PowerPoint lectures do not involve movement of any kind, and so finding a way to
keep students interested in a lecture could be taxing. However, it is well worth it when
the information is remembered.
Bloom’s cognitive domain is met through PowerPoint lectures as students are
required to comprehend information presented through PowerPoint lectures. By being
able to understand the meaning of presented material, students are going beyond
remembering. To be sure students understand the material; questions could be asked
throughout a lecture. Ask students to contemplate what will show on the next slide. To
clarify, I would ask students where they thought sea lampreys came from (which was on
the next PowerPoint slide). I allowed them time to guess and then moved on to the
next slide. Satisfaction was met by most students, as they guessed correctly (the Atlantic
Ocean, if you were wondering).
The psychomotor domain is met through articulation, merely because through
PowerPoint lectures, students are improving their expertise and knowledge through
visual learning. Visual learning, as researched by Gardner’s multiple intelligences is a
method where student’s best learn by visualizing and using the mind’s eye. Also
according to Gardner, hearing and seeing words using a PowerPoint lecture is a way of
learning linguistically. This method is most often used in college lectures, and may
benefit students in the long run to adapt to it early on in their school career.
How can PowerPoint lectures utilize individual differences?
PowerPoint lectures may not be able to utilize individual differences as much as
conceptual mapping may, however they could prove to be more effective to students of
different backgrounds. If students are having difficulty comprehending the English
language, PowerPoint lectures may help them to understand concepts more through
visuals. Many students are capable of understanding the meaning behind pictures and
images. As a science teacher, perhaps I wanted to discuss the formation of a mountain.
If the students did not know what ‘mountain’ meant, perhaps they could better
understand the meaning if images were presented to them. Or even giving students a
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copy of PowerPoint lectures as handouts so they can follow along and take notes when
necessary, could benefit their individual learning process.
How can PowerPoint lectures promote motivation?
Alfie Kohn’s content point in his 3 C’s is a definite way to promote motivation
through PowerPoint lectures. PowerPoint lectures are filled with content and
information. If students are able to understand the meaning of the content and the
importance/relevance to their life style, enthusiasm could be formed so more information
will want to be learned.
As stated before through concept mapping and KWL, I attempted to motivate
students through suspense. I wanted them to ask “what will be next?”
How can PowerPoint lectures create learning environments?
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is met through PowerPoint lectures as selfactualization is emphasized. PowerPoint lectures present students with the opportunity
to accept facts society has created. By accepting facts and realities of the world, students
are able to pass a stage of denial. They are also able to be more creative and interested
in solving problems. Thus, critical thinking is established and used further. According to
Maslow, students who have reached self-actualization have become aware of reality and
have gained trust by accepting self, others, and nature.
From a personal standpoint, once students accept facts created by a society and
differences associated with them, maturity has progressed. With maturity in the
classroom, the learning environment is made that much more effective with cooperation,
participation, and eagerness to learn.
Lectures are the basis of all learning in a classroom when detailed information is to
be passed to students. PowerPoint lectures could be considered as a more
“sophisticated” way of taking on lecturing so students may remain interested.
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Storytelling
…is a verbal (and possibly visual) way of presenting information to students through
interesting literature and/or myths and legends. Storytelling is an effective teaching
strategy that may be used to introduce a topic and grab student’s attention. Oftentimes,
in the field of science, storytelling can link Traditional Ecological Knowledge by
incorporating diverse cultures into a curriculum. American Indians told stories, especially
during the winter months, to entertain and pass along values and traditions that have
been told for centuries. It is a way to include all students of diverse backgrounds and
encourage them to participate and/or share stories themselves.
How can storytelling develop Habits of Mind?
“Listening is the beginning of understanding…
Wisdom is the reward for a lifetime of listening.
Let the wise listen and add to their learning and let the discerning get guidance.”
Proverbs 1:5
One Habit of Mind developed through storytelling is that of listening. According
to Costa and Kallick, listening is one of the skills least emphasized in school, however at
least 55 percent of our lives is devoted to it. Storytelling is a teaching strategy solely
focused on the listening skills of students. This Habit of Mind is developed through the
ability of students to withhold their opinions and prejudices and respect other people’s
thoughts. As stated before, American Indians told stories to pass values and traditions
along, and help entertain a community during the cold winter months. Other cultures
performed the same strategy. Through this strategy, people learned to listen.
Another Habit of Mind apparent in storytelling is questioning. What will happen
next? Suspenseful as stories are, this Habit of Mind helps students to contemplate what
will be said, and how the thoughts relate to what they will be learning. The Socratic
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Method, as it emphasizes questioning as well, encourages intellectual thought and
formations of probable resolutions to a question.
With my storytelling experience, another important Habit of Mind for students to
possess is that of creating, imagining, and innovating. Without creativity, a story is
difficult to understand and imagine. Thus, storytelling develops creativity and
imagination. In our modern society, children are being exposed to more technology
than ever before. However, with technology there is little imagination. Technology is
able to solve problems for children and create their imagination leaving little room for
children to create their own. Storytelling may be considered “old school” but it would
definitely benefit children as they learn to form original ideas and thoughts.
“The most beautiful experience in the world is the experience of the mysterious.”
Albert Einstein
The above statement pertains to a students’ ability to respond with wonderment
and awe. This can be developed by asking students to help in telling the story. What do
you think should happen next? Which culture should we recognize today? With this
type of involvement, students will be able to relate and take interest in the world that
surrounds them. This is in accordance with my teaching philosophy where TEK is
integrated into my curriculum.
An undesirable Habit of Mind may be the instance where students consider
storytelling to be “bedtime”. Some students may in fact be accustomed to falling asleep
when a story is told to them. Perhaps, to go along with learning environments, a setting
could be mimicked where a fake campfire is in the center of a classroom. By adding a
simple imaginative piece, students may be more focused.
How can storytelling foster multi-domain learning?
In accordance with Habit of Minds, receiving and responding to phenomena is
fostered through storytelling. The affective domain of Bloom is successfully met upon
student’s abilities to demonstrate awareness and the ability to listen and participate with
respect to others.
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Another important aspect to the affective domain which pertains to learning
through storytelling is that of valuing. Cultures, however ancient, should be respected by
students. American Indians, for example, consider it offensive to their ancestral spirits if
Native American stories are told during the summer months. My source of this
information is a professor at UMD whom I came in contact with this summer during my
internship with the DNR. I had been searching for someone to tell stories to children at
the Great Lakes Aquarium for a culture appreciation event, and was told it is against their
policy. Thus, maintaining values is imperative to prevent offenses against students with
diverse backgrounds.
Storytelling primarily focuses on the comprehension stage in Bloom’s cognitive
domain. Simply being able to understand the meaning of a story is significant to
understanding a lesson that may follow.
Again, the psychomotor domain of Bloom’s taxonomy is met through articulation
as the knowledge of students is improved through TEK incorporation. Through the
improvement of knowledge, students may better understand the purpose of a lesson or
unit that is to take place.
Gardner’s multiple intelligences are also accomplished through storytelling.
Students who learn best linguistically, visually, interpersonally, and naturalistically could
benefit through storytelling. With the use of props as a story is told, visual learners are
able to picture events. With the aptitude of picturing something happening, they may
recall information by thinking back to that image.
Storytelling involves the cooperation of students. Perhaps an instructor utilizes the
ideas and preferences of students to help tell a story. This is demonstrating interpersonal
communication through working in cooperative groups and sharing ideas.
By placing students in an outdoor setting, a naturalistic form of learning may
progress. Observing a campfire as a story is told may be the best thing for some students
help focus during a lesson.
How can storytelling utilize individual differences?
Storytelling can not only utilize individual differences by Gardner’s multiple
intelligences (as described previously), but also by cooperative learning. According to
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Johnson and Johnson, cooperative learning is a strategy used in small groups so students
have the opportunity to employ teamwork in improving their own and each other’s
learning.
To make cooperative learning successful, several factors may need to be
addressed. In the case of storytelling, the plot and moral should be tailored to meet the
needs of the lesson, subject area (science), and individual students. By doing this, conflict
is reduced. Being prepared to intervene should a conflict arise will increase the
effectiveness of the lesson.
How can storytelling promote motivation?
With motivation comes inspiration. Alfie Kohn’s 3 C’s are accomplished through
storytelling. Collaboration is met as students are encouraged to participate with their
peers. With participation, motivation may be increased. When students realize the
relevance of the story to the content they will be studying, perhaps they will be more
motivated to at least participate in a storytelling lesson since it is a different way of
learning. Finally, by empowering students with individual choices on which stories to tell
(as long as it is relevant to the topic being studied), motivation is increased.
This past summer I told a story to a group of 30 children at a YMCA in Grand
Rapids. It pertained to myths and legends. I helped the kids understand the meaning
behind myths and legends and told them they will get the chance to tell their own at the
end. The story I told was about an abnormally large walleye the size of a whale that
lived in a small lake. After my story, one of the kids raised their hand and said “…I
caught a fish that snapped my pole right in half. It was at least a hundred pounds!”
After that story, EVERY single hand went up in the air. To make my point, when
students are given the opportunity to share their thoughts on a subject, others will be
inclined to do so as well.
How can storytelling create learning environments?
Storytelling can create a comfortable learning environment allowing students to
feel as though they are part of a community. Storytelling is not a common teaching
strategy in schools and could primarily take place within the security of ones home.
Perhaps by telling and sharing stories, students will have the secure feeling they are in
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their home. For many students, the security of a home also represents a sense of
belonging within a family or community. Providing students the opportunity to
participate in storytelling could strengthen that feeling.
Storytelling also meets the cognitive needs of students. As Maslow said,
“…the natural human needs to learn, explore, discover, and create to get a better
understanding of the world around them.”
What better way to do so than with storytelling. Through storytelling, myths and
legends describing how the Earth formed; how time was first discovered; and how Lake
Superior is shaped like the head of wolf, students are discovering and exploring the same
things cultures before them discovered and explored.
The learning environment is intended to be a creative, fun, and interesting one
where students are motivated to learn and listen. Cultures before us have told stories for
centuries to entertain and teach their youth, why not pass the tradition on?
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Labs
With all science classrooms, there are science labs. Science labs are interactive, hands-on
learning strategies in a controlled setting that focus on the natural and physical world.
The use of scientific equipment (e.g. microscopes, beakers, etc.) and physical data (e.g.
rocks, sedimentary samples, etc.) are useful tools to make a science lab successful.
How can labs develop Habits of Mind?
A lab focuses on the process of scientific inquiry where a question is asked;
hypothesis is proposed; and is finally tested through experimentation. As students go
through this process, they develop the ability to question and pose problems. Many
scientists question the process of the scientific method, and often resort to the Socratic
Method as they try to find a solution to a problem. How reliable is this data? What
would happen if we did this another way? Thus, intellectual thought is brought into the
scientific method.
Another Habit of Mind students may develop as they are experimenting in a
scientific lab is persistence. Sticking to a task until it is completed is a characteristic
strategy when it comes to experimenting and concluding a problem. However, students
may not have the attention span when it comes to persistence and may, instead give up
easily. By emphasizing the importance of learning how to persist through a lab and solve
problems, students will learn what completion and accomplishment feel like. If they can
get to that point, perhaps they will continue to persevere.
Striving for accuracy and precision is the downfall of every scientist, however a
desirable Habit of Mind for students to develop. Confucius once said,
“A man who has committed a mistake and doesn’t correct it
is committing another mistake.”
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On that note, Costa and Kallick inform their readers that students tend to turn in sloppy
and incomplete work as they become anxious to complete an assignment. The students
that learn to strive for accuracy and precision are those students that will succeed in
science. Science is about factual, numerical, and precise gathering of data. Without these
characteristics, science would not be science.
Scientific experimentation is about gathering data through all senses. Observing
with sight; determining a bad chemical upon contact; smelling a foul or pleasant odor;
and listening are all ways to gather data. As students develop this Habit of Mind,
perhaps they will appreciate everything in their world a little bit more. During my
apprenticeship, students experimented with the growth of slime mold. They were
instructed to use all of their senses and write down their observations. Many students
were readily touching the slime mold, smelling it, and listening (and waiting) for it to talk
back to them. Needless, to say I was lucky I received such a curious bunch of students!
There are, of course, the students who do not desire to observe by touching the slime
mold and do not wish to get “dirty” in order to feel the texture of a substance. As a
science teacher, this is disappointing. I want students to be able to experience their
world first hand, not from afar.
Also during my apprenticeship, I observed students responding with wonderment
and awe as they observed the slime mold they were experimenting with. They were
able to help the slime mold grow by feeding it. The day they received the slime mold, it
had not yet matured. The following day, however, several of the students’ slime mold
nearly took over a Petri dish! With this observation, I heard “whoa” and “sweet”
coming from many of the cooperative learning groups. This was a great feeling, as they
felt compelled to learn why some of the slime mold grew so much, and others so little
(some of the experiments failed).
Another Habit of Mind that can be developed through lab work is that of
interdependent thinking. I would like to help students realize that with their peers, they
are empowered by thoughts and ideas. When it comes to experimenting in labs, one
person cannot do the experiment alone, especially at the middle school level where they
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are just learning the process of inquiry. It is possible, yet not preferred. Building
student’s interdependence helps them to learn how to contribute and receive input.
Some students however, have never worked with their peers. Perhaps they feel
like an outcast or simply have unused social skills. For these students, emphasizing the
meaning of cooperative learning is significant to the success of their performance, as well
as their group’s performance.
How can labs foster multi-domain learning?
Science labs focus on many learning types. In Bloom’s affective domain, students
are able to receive and respond to phenomena; value the importance of an experiment;
and internalize their values. By receiving and responding to phenomena, students are
willing to cooperate with their groups and are actively participating in the tasks assigned
to them. By valuing, students are attaching a meaning to a certain lab. Why is this
important for us to learn? Finally, by internalizing their values students are displaying
teamwork by effectively cooperating in their groups.
Coherent with cooperative learning groups, the developmental stages of Erik
Erikson come into play as students at this level are building relationships with their peer
groups. Students in this stage of adolescence are trying to find their identity and at times
struggle with moralities and social groups while simultaneously finding their place in
society and the school system.
In Bloom’s cognitive domain, students are meeting the stages of knowledge,
comprehension, application, and analysis. Scientific labs almost always require the
utilization of previously learned knowledge, whether it is for safety precautions and/or
the way to carry out an experiment. The ability for students to comprehend what they
are experimenting with or observing puts meaning behind the lab. Similar to this
process, students meet formal operations under Piaget’s developmental stages by learning
to reason abstractly like an adult. Students are also able to apply their learned
knowledge to a lab, whether it is a principle, law, or rule. Students also apply their
knowledge to forming a hypothesis through scientific inquiry. Finally, students break
down sections of lab to analyze their meaning. Students reach a higher level of
intellectual thinking when they experience this level.
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According to Bloom’s psychomotor domain, students are able to complete the
stages of imitation (if a lab is demonstrated), manipulation, precision, articulation, and
naturalization. Students would more than likely be given a set of procedures to follow
as they carry out a lab. By following the directions, students are manipulating by
reproducing an experiment. Precision and articulation are demonstrated as students
learn to conduct an experiment without assistance, thus improving their level of
expertise. Finally, naturalization is apparent as students master the skills needed to carry
out a successful experiment. Naturalization may also be accomplished through Gardner’s
multiple intelligences, as science labs often involve the observation of nature.
To continue emphasizing Gardner’s multiple intelligences, science labs are great for
logical, spatial, kinesthetic, and interpersonal learners. With science labs, students are
solving problems and cooperating within learning groups, developing their interpersonal
skills. They are also moving and touching things which describes kinesthetic learning.
Thus, science labs meet the needs of diverse individuals learning in a variety of ways.
How can labs utilize individual differences?
Through cooperative learning, students are utilizing their ability to provide and
learn the meaning of teamwork with a group of students. Also through cooperative
learning, students will notice differences between their peers as it is probable that every
student thinks and acts differently within a group, especially if they are of different
backgrounds. Similar to concept mapping, students are learning PIGS FACE when they
cooperate interdependently; interact with their peers face-to-face; learn group
accountability as they achieve their goals; and develop small group skills.
Scientific labs also help students to understand that scientists conduct experiments
differently, as there are different views to the theories proposed by scientists. Science is a
controversial field of study where many opinions and theories exist. By allowing
students to experience this through science labs, they are able to understand why and
how differences exist by working with their peers.
How can labs promote motivation?
Labs are able to promote motivation through Alfie Kohn’s 3 C’s: collaboration,
content, and choice. Through collaboration, students gain input from their peers. This
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input allows them to build their success and avoid obstacles. Knowing the content and
the purpose of a science lab could help students understand the significance to an
experiment. Why are we doing this? What is its purpose? Not only the purpose behind
an actual lab is important (such as identifying rocks could help to understand the process
by which the Earth formed), but the method used is also significant (the scientific
method). Finally, students are able to choose a question and hypothesize on their own.
Scientific inquiry is about questioning and understanding science and how it works. By
promoting involvement and choice, students may feel motivated to discover and explore
new ideas.
Newmann’s authentic pedagogy also has a place within science labs. By engaging
in higher order thinking, students are building upon their base of knowledge. According
to Newmann,
“This helps them develop for themselves new meanings or deeper understandings.”
By accomplishing this goal, students will have a better understanding of the world that
surrounds them. Middle school science labs are forms of disciplined inquiry. They help
students understand the meaning of natural science beyond school. With deeper
understanding and ability to perform scientific inquiry, students can realize why they are
learning the information they do when participating in scientific labs. They are learning
how the world functions.
How can labs create learning environments?
Labs can create effective learning environments by allowing students to feel a
sense of belonging within their cooperative learning groups, and building their selfesteem through task accomplishment. Safety is also a significant role in creating an
effective learning environment. Promoting smart choices will allow students to feel
secure within the classroom.
During my apprenticeship, it was apparent when students were able to make their
slime mold grow in a Petri dish. However it is like science for some experiments to fail.
I explained this to the students to help them understand science experiments are not
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always successful. Thomas Edison was not successful during his first attempts to make a
light bulb glow. Through this persuasion, students then reached self-actualization when
they learned to accept facts of science.
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