Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020
PRIMARY AUXILIARIES
Primary auxiliaries are: be, have, do
BE as an auxiliary has two functions:
a) it forms progressive aspect - be + -ing form of the lexical verb
Ann is learning Spanish.
They were playing football.
The weather has been improving.
b) it forms the passive - be + past (-ed) participle of the lexical verb
Ann was awarded a prize.
Our team has never been beaten.
The cars are made in Japan.
Be is unique in having a full set of both finite and non-finite forms in auxiliary function. It is
also unique among English verbs in having as many as eight different forms.
HAVE as an auxiliary combines with an –ed participle to form a complex verb phrase
expressing perfective aspect:
I have finished.
It must have been eaten.
Be and have are also used as auxiliaries in negative sentences and questions in the passive,
progressive and perfective aspects:
He isn´t going.
Hasn´t she seen it yet?
Was it written in English?
DO as an auxiliary is used to make negative and question forms from sentences that have a
verb in the present simple or past simple:
Do you like her new haircut?
She didn´t buy the house.
Didn´t he get the job?
DO is also used in affirmative sentences for emphasis or contrast:
I do feel sorry for Paul.
Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020
Be, have, do can be also used as pro-forms:
They came late and so did we.
I was not waiting and neither was Mary.
Has she come? Yes, she has.
Lexical meaning
Be is a lexical verb in:
Time is money.
Ann is a happy girl.
The meeting was on Monday.
There´s a man in the garden.
meaning – linking verb
meaning – to exist
Be as a modal verb: They are to come on Monday.
Have as a lexical verb:
 stative meaning – possession
We don´t have any money.
- relationship
Have you got any brothers?
- health
I have a headache.
 dynamic meaning – receive, take, experience
to have coffee, to have difficulties getting there, to have a good time

causative meaning
I had the house painted.
When do you have your hair cut?
Do as a main verb is close in meaning to the verb ‘make’:
What are you doing here?
and it can combine with do as an auxiliary:
He didn´t do his homework.
Do they do the work themselves?
Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020
ASPECT
Aspect is a grammatical category that reflects the way in which the meaning of a verb is
viewed with respect to time. Aspect answers the question ‘Is the event/state described by the
verb completed, or is it continuing? We recognize two aspects in English, the perfect
(perfective) and the progressive (continuous), which may combine in a complex verb phrase,
and are marked for present or past tense.
Aspect is one of the grammatical categories that can be expressed by finite and non-finite verb
forms.
present perfect
past perfect
has examined
had examined
present progressive
past progressive
is examining
was examining
present perfect progressive
past perfect progressive
has been examining
had been examining
The present perfect
is used to refer to a situation set at some indefinite time within a period beginning in the past
and leading up to the present.





the state up to the present
We have lived in Amsterdam for five years.
the event up to the present
There´s been a serious accident.
She has given an interview only once in her life.
the habitual use
The magazine has been published every month (since 1975).
resultative past
He has been given a very nice present.
present perfect with the present time adverbials
I have finished it this morning.
The past perfect
 has paralleling functions as present perfect
Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020
The house had been empty for centuries. (state up to ‘then’)
Had they visited N.Y. before? (event up to ‘then’)
He had broken his hand and couldn´t write. (result)

refers to a time earlier than another past time
They had moved into the house before the baby was born.
The simple past can replace the past perfect in such cases, if the time relationship between the
two situations is clear:
They moved into the house before the baby was born.
After they finished lunch, they started reading the book.
The present perfect is much more common than past perfect in conversation, news, and
academic prose. However, past perfect is somewhat more common in fiction.
Progressive aspect
focuses on the situation as being in progress at a particular time. In consequence, it may imply
that the situation has limited duration, and that it is not necessarily complete.
•generally, verbs with stative senses do not occur in the progressive
*I am liking your sister.
He was being silly. – may indicate a type of behaviour with limited duration.

the event in progress (incomplete)
I was reading an economics book last night.
X
I read an economics book last night.
(not completed x completed)

limited duration (habitual)
She’s writing short stories.
X
She writes short stories.
The progressive implies temporariness, whereas the nonprogressive implies permanence.

characteristic (persistent) activity
He is always drinking my wine.
Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020

reference to the future
They are leaving tonight.
Verbs expressing progressive aspect
Dynamic verbs:
a) activity verbs: I am going to school.
b) process verbs: The weather is changing.
c) event verbs: They are leaving now.
d) momentary verbs: He was kicking the ball.
Stative verbs:
a) active perception : I am tasting the sauce.
b) active cognition: You are imagining things. I was hoping you would help me.
c) verbs similar to ‘have’ and ‘be’: He was being silly. They are having dinner. She is
resembling her grandma more and more.
The perfect progressive
When the perfect and progressive aspects are combined in the same verb phrase (has been
working), the features of meaning associated with each aspect are also combined:
She has been waiting for hours. You have been writing this homework the whole
afternoon.
Finite verb forms
they have come
they had brought it
they have been waiting
they had been reading
Non-finite verb forms
to have come
having brought it
to have been waiting
having been reading
Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020
VOICE
The distinction between active and passive applies only to sentences where the verb is
transitive.
The grammatical category of aspect can be expressed by finite and non-finite verb forms.
The difference between the active and passive voice involves both the verb phrase and the
clause as a whole:
•verb phrase
finite: kisses
x
is kissed
has kissed x
has been kissed
non-finite: to kiss x
to be kissed
to be kissing x to be being kissed
•clause level
–the active S (if retained) becomes the passive agent (optional)
–the active O becomes the passive S
–the preposition by is inserted before the agent
John Brown murdered the detective.
The detective was murdered (by John Brown).
Passives can occur as either short or long passives. In short passives (also called agentless
passives) the agent is not specified:
The detective was murdered.
Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020
Long passives contain a by-phrase which, in typical cases, specifies the agent of the action:
The detective was murdered by John Brown.
Short passives are about six times as frequent as long passives.
Passives are most common in academic prose (about 25 per cent of all finite verbs), they are
also common in news. In contrast, passive voice verbs are rare in conversation.
Uses of the passive
•when we don´t want to take responsibility for something
The matter will be dealt with soon.
•when we want to focus on a happening, not who or what did it
Our roof was damaged in last night’s storm.
•when we want to avoid „vague subjects“ like one, someone, they, etc.
The form has to be signed. English spoken.
•in scientific and technical writing (to avoid the constant repetition of the subject)
The subject was blindfolded and a pencil was placed in the left hand.
•to put emphasis on the agent of the action
He was murdered by John Brown.
In sentences where there is a choice between active and passive, the active is the norm.
The passive transformation is blocked when there is co-reference between subject and object,
i.e. when there are reflexive, reciprocal, or possessive pronouns as object:
•John could see himself in the mirror.
* Himself could be seen in the mirror.
•We could hardly see each other in the fog.
* Each other could hardly be seen in the fog.
•The other waitress wiped her hands.
* Her hands were wiped by the other waitress.
A small group of transitive verbs, the most common of which is have, normally do not allow a
passive transformation:
They have a nice house.
He lacks confidence.
This coat does not fit you.
Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020
Will this suit you?
John resembles his father.
Quasi/semi/adjectival passive:
They were encouraged to go there.
Everybody is interested in linguistics.
I was rather surprised by the news.
Medio-passive (medium) - active sentences with passive meaning:
The blouse washes well.
The book sells well.
The lid won’t shut.
Passive in English and in Czech
English uses passive sentences more often because:
 both objects can become subjects of passive sentences (in Czech only direct object)
 strict word order can be changed significantly (in English)
Czech equivalents of English passive sentences:
A new house was built. - Postavili nový dům. Postavil se nový dům. Byl postaven nový dům.
He was given a present. - Dali mu dárek. Dostal dárek.
She was called by her parents. - Zavolali jí rodiče.
He is interested in linguistics. - Zajímá se o lingvistiku.
Are you being served? - Už vás někdo obsluhuje?
The blouse washes well. - Ta halenka se dobře pere.