WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
1. It has two component
A. Direction - making choices, where you direct
your energies
B. Intensity - how much energy you have toward
that motive
Definition - Motivation is a process of arousing,
sustaining and regulating a pattern of activity.
2. Achievement Motivation Theory
A. Motivation is conceptualised differently by
cognitive vrs. Behavioural psychologists
S-R (Behaviourist) No intervening construct
S-C-R (Cognitive Psychologist) Cognitions
(thoughts) determine action
ATKINSONIAN THEORY
1. Interaction Theme
AM = the person interacting with the environment
The person has 2 motives
MS = motive to succeed
MAF = motive to avoid failure
How they interact with the environment also
depends on 2 factors
P = probability of attaining a goal
I = incentive value of that goal
2. The components make up equations which form the
theory.
Ts = Ms x Ps x Is (The tendency to approach an
achievement situation = the motive to succeed x the
probability of success x the incentive value of success)
Taf = Maf x Pf x If (The tendency to avoid an
achievement situation = the motive to avoid failure x
the probability of failure x the incentive value of
failure)
3. Competition is an achievement situation involving
both approach and avoidance conflicts.
4. Each individual possesses both personality
dispositions (Ms & Maf)
5. Resultant tendency to approach an achievement
(TR = Ts-Taf)
6. What is important about this theory?
A. Relationship between Ps and Is is negative. As
Ps increases, the Is decreases.
B. Thus - the best motivation situation is where
you see a 50-50 chance of success.
C. How does differences in Ms & Maf affect
motivation? It affects the attractiveness of a
task.
High in Ms (Ms > Maf) select tasks of
intermediate difficulty.
High in Maf (Maf > Ms) select tasks in the
extremes. Why?
7. Implications of the Atkinsonian Theory for coaches
Ms vrs. Maf- build success oriented athletes
 Give them successes
 realistic goals
 make them feel worthy
 do not punish for every mistake
Ps - Make it 50% - 50%
Is - Emphasise performance not outcome
8. Problem with the Atkinsonian Model
A. It is a general achievement construct (It does not
take into account that tasks are situation specific)
B. A person has more AM in some tasks not others.
Virginia Crandall’s Achievement Model
1. It is an Expectancy x Value Model
How Her Theory Differs
A. It focuses on overt behaviour
B. There is no need for an achievement motivation
construct
C. Crandall’s definition of Achievement Behaviours
= Behaviour directed toward the attainment of
approval or the avoidance of disapproval form
ones self or from others, specifically contingent
upon indices of competence of performance in
situations where standards of excellence are
applicable to that performance.
D. Crandall’s Formula = Behavioural Potential =
Expectancy - minimum standard x attainment
value
1. Attainment Value is the degree of importance
attached to attaining approval or avoiding
disapproval based on performance in tasks in a
particular achievement skill area.
2. Expectancy is a persons implicit assessment of
their level of proficiency in performing the
instrumental acts required by the tasks.
Differences in These Theories
1. Atkinson believes that the Ps is equivalent to the
subjective Ps.
2. Crandall believes Ps is determined by the history of
reinforcements on the same or similar tasks
3. Relationship of expectancy to value
Atkinson - Negative Linear (as expectancy of
success increases, the value decreases)
Crandall - Independent
4. According to Crandall, what determines the value
of a particular reinforcer is the Minimum Standard.
(The lowest level of reinforcement which the
individual perceives as defining minimal success.)
Attribution Theory
 Concerned with attributions people make, which are
judgements or reasons why one succeeds or fails.
 Things you say to yourself (self talk or internal
cognitions) influence your achievement behaviour.
 There are differences in attributions of success and
failure oriented athletes.
Variables Which Influence Motivation in Athletes
The article by Carron discussed many variables
like:
 Within Task (difficulty, enjoyment)
 Within Athlete (age, gender, experience)
Hawthorne Effect - Improvement in performance due
to changes in the environment. (Control groups in
research)
Motivation and Marten’s Model of Competitiveness
Objective Competitive Situation
Coaching Implications
Ability of Opponents
Audience
Preparation
Game Importance
Be Prepared (scout)
Simulate real life
Practice
Not High, Nor Low
Subjective Competitive Situation
Personality-Ms vrs. Maf
Arousal
Confidence
Goals
Competitiveness
Proper Arousal
Realistic Goals
Stress Performance
Response (physiological, psychological, behavioural)
Anxiety/Arousal
Cognitive Worry
Concentration
Attention
Long term process Psychological skills
training to help
athletes control
responses
Consequences
Success/failure
Subjective success
Reinforcement
Lots of feedback
Expectancies & Attributions Attribution shaping