Biology 211 Exam 4 Study Guide
Chapter 28
The Reproductive Systems
INTRODUCTION
1. Define reproduction in terms of continuity of the population and cell
division, and then generally classify the organs of reproduction by
function.
THE CELL CYCLE IN THE GONADS
2. Define meiosis.
The number of Chromosomes in Somatic Cells and Gametes
3. Describe the different types and numbers of chromosomes that exist in
somatic and sex cells (gametes) and the changes that occur as one
evolves into other during meiosis.
Meiosis
4. Describe the result of meiosis
Meiosis I
5. Describe and explain the events of meiosis I.
Meiosis II
6. Describe and explain the events of meiosis II.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
7. List the major components of the male reproductive system and their
general functions.
Scrotum
8. Explain the structure, histology, and functions of the scrotum in its role
of protection and temperature regulator.
Testes
9. Explain the structure, histology, and functions of the tunicas,
seminiferous, tubules, spermatogonia and sustentacular cells of the
testes.
10. Explain the blood-testis barrier.
11. Discuss cryptorchidism.
Spermatogenesis
12. Discuss the key points relating to spermatogenesis.
13. Describe and explain the events of spermatogenesis and
spermiogenesis.
Sperm
14. Examine the functional structures of the spermatozoa.
Hormonal Control of Spermatogenesis
15. Discus the negative feedback system of the brain-testicular axis that
controls the production of sperm, with emphasis on the actions of each
type of hormone with the different types of cells in the testes.
Reproductive System Ducts in Males
Ducts of the testis
16. Explain the structure, histology, and functions of the ducts of the testis.
Epididymis
17. Explain the structure, histology, and functions of the epididymis.
Ductus Deferems
18. Explain the structure, histology, and functions of the ductus deferens.
Spermatic Cord
19. Describe the structures that constitute the spermatic cord and explain
its passage through the inguinal canal.
20. Describe the course, treatment, and consequences of inguinal hernias.
Ejaculatory Ducts
21. Explain the structure, histology, and functions of the ejaculatory ducts.
Urethra
22. Explain the structure, histology, and functions of the urethra.
Accessory Sex Glands
Seminal Vesicles
23. Explain the structure, histology, and function of the seminal vesicles.
Prostate Gland
24. Explain the structure, histology, and function of the prostate gland.
Bulbourethral Glands
25. Explain the structure, histology, and function of the bulbourethral
gland.
Semen
26. Describe the origins as well as cellular and chemical characteristics of
semen.
Penis
27. Explain the structure, histology, and functions of the penis.
28. Describe the surgical procedure called circumcision and discuss its
possible benefits.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
29. Describe the general location and functions of the ovaries, uterine
(Fallopian) tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva, and mammary glands.
Ovaries
30. Describe the external accessory structures related to the ovaries.
Histology of the Ovary
31. Discuss the histology of the ovaries.
Oogenesis
32. Follow the steps of oogenic meiosis that show the process of genetic
division is the same as in spermatogenesis, but then emphasize that
the timing, distribution of cytoplasmic materials and number of viable
gametes at the end is very different.
33. Trace the formation and development of the various structures of the
ovarian cycle
Uterine Tubes
34. Describe the uterine tubes' general and epithelial structure, in addition
to their operation in transport of the secondary oocyte after ovulation.
Uterus
35. List the functions of the uterus.
Anatomy of the Uterus
36. Identify the anatomical subdivisions of the uterus.
37. Point out the dimensions and major features of the uterus, and then
show how the surrounding ligaments and membranes support the
uterus.
38. Discuss uterine prolapse and identify the three degrees of uterine
prolapse.
Histology of the Uterus
39. Discuss the three histological layers of the uterus.
40. Provide a detailed histological examination of the endometrium.
41. Discuss the indications for a hysterectomy.
42. . Discuss the blood supply to the uterus.
Cervical Mucosa
43. Discuss the composition of the cervical mucosa and correlate the
changes in the cervical mucosa to its effects on the sperm.
Vagina
44. Name the anatomic structures of the vagina.
Vulva
45. Differentiate the functions of the distinct external structure of the vulva.
Perineum
46. Indicate the supporting muscles of the perineum with orientation to the
urogenital and anal triangles.
47. Explain the medical reasons for performing an episiotomy.
Mammary Glands
48. Describe the location, anatomy, histology, and function of the
mammary glands.
49. Describe fibrocystic disease of the breast in terms of cause and
symptoms.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE
50. State the general purpose of the uterine and ovarian cycles.
Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Cycle
51. Discuss the factors that stimulate and inhibit secretion of the
hypothalamic, pituitary, and ovarian hormones, and then show the
response of tissues that prepare the woman's system for reproduction.
Phases of the Female Reproductive Cycle
52. Note the normal span of the sum of the three phases of the female
reproductive cycle.
Menstrual Phase
53. Portray the events occurring with the follicles in the ovaries and the
tissue changes in the endometrium during the menstrual phase, and
explain how these are part of reproductive preparation.
Preovulatory Phase
54. Discuss the changes in hormone levels during the preovulatory phase
that can be shown to promote the development of the follicle and
oocyte in the ovaries and cellular modifications of the endometrium.
Ovulation
55. Discuss the changes in hormonal feedback to the hypothalamus that
initiates expulsion of the secondary oocyte during ovulation.
Postovulatory Phase
56. Explain the consistency of the postovulatory interval and course of
development of the corpus luteum and endometrium depending on
whether fertilization does or does not occur.
57. Discuss various menstrual abnormalities.
58. Discuss the condition female athlete triad (disordered eating,
amenorrhea, and premature osteoporosis) that often develops in
women who train intensely.
THE HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE
59. Define the general purpose of sexual intercourse.
Stages of the Human Sexual Response
60. Describe the characteristic physical and physiological events of the
four stages of sexual response.
Changes in the Male
61. State the neural actions that promote erection and transport of semen
during the four stages on the male sexual response.
62. Discuss the causes, signs, and treatment of erectile dysfunction.
Changes in the Female
63. Describe the physiological basis of transudation and responses of the
female system in the four phases of the sexual response.
BIRTH CONTROL METHODS
64. Contrast the various types of birth control and their effectiveness:
Surgical Sterilization
Hormonal Methods
Intrauterine Devices
Spermacides
Barrier Methods
Periodic Abstinence
Coitus Interruptus
Induced Abortion
DEVELOPMENT OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
65. Describe the development of the reproductive systems.
66. Discuss the effect of a deficiency of 5-alpha-reductase.
AGING AND THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
67. Describe the general effects of aging on the reproductive systems
during development to maturity.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
68. Describe the symptoms and causes of male disorders (testicular
cancer and prostate disorders) and female disorders (premenstrual
syndrome, endometriosis, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, cervical
cancer, and vulvovaginal candidiasis).
69. Explain the symptoms and causes of sexually transmitted diseases
(STD's) such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, and genital herpes
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
70. Define medical terminology associated with the reproductive systems.
Chapter 29
Development And Inheritance
INTRODUCTION
1. Differentiate between embryological development and fetal development
2. List the three periods of prenatal development.
EMBRYONIC PERIOD
First Week of Development
Fertilization
3. Describe the transport and stimulus for transformation of the sperm from
introduction into the female reproductive tract through capacitation.
4. Define the conditions produced by the sperm to penetrate the three layers
surrounding the secondary oocyte and the actions initiated when the first
sperm merges with the ooctye.
5. Discuss the difference in the process that forms monozygotic versus dizygotic
twins.
Cleavage of the Zygote
6. Explain the process of cleavage and state how this process leads to the
formation of a morula.
7. Discuss stem cell research and therapeutic cloning and the ultimate goals of
these therapies.
Development of the Blastocyst
8. Specify the features of the blastocyst that distinguish it from the morula and
leads to differentiation of cells.
Implantation
9. Discuss the cellular and structural transformations of the blatocyst and
endometrium that allow the two to merge and then sustain their interactions.
10. Examine the changes in the endometrium (decidua) and list the three regions
of the decidua.
11. Define an ectopic pregnancy and state the probable causes, symptoms, and
treatments of an ectopic pregnancy
Second Week of Development
Development of the Trophoblast
12. Discuss the layers, which develop from the trophoblast and state their
function.
Development of the Bilaminar Embryonic Disc
13. Discuss the two layers that develop from the inner cell mass.
Development of the Amnion
14. Examine the development of the amnion and the formation of the amniotic
fluid and state their function.
Development of the Yolk Sac
15. Discuss the formation and functions of the yolk sac.
Development of the Sinusoids
16. Discuss the formation and significance of the sinusoids.
Development of the Extraembryonic Coelom
17. Examine the process that leads to the formation of the extraembryonic
coelom.
Development of the Chorion
18. Discuss the formation and significance of the chorion.
Third Week of Development
Gastrulation
19. Describe gastrulation and the growth of the three primary germ layers.
20. Establish which organs arise form the different germ layers by the end of the
embryonic development.
Neurulation
21. Describe the process of neurulation and the formation of the neural tube.
22. Explain how the neural tube develops into the primitive nervous system.
Development of Somites
23. Examine the formation of the somites and the three regions within the somite.
Development of the Intraembryonic Coelom
24. Discuss the formation of the intraembryonic coelom and trace its development
into the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
Development of the Cardiovascular System
25. Discuss the formation of the primitive heart.
Development of the Chorionic Villi and Placenta
26. Trace the development of the chorionic villi and placenta.
27. Explain the maternal and fetal parts of the placenta.
28. State the functions of the placenta.
29. Discuss the fate of the placenta after the birth of the baby.
30. Describe placenta previa and its consequences.
Fourth Week of Development
31. Define the term organogenesis.
32. Examine how embryonic folding converts the embryo to a three dimensional
cylinder.
33. Trace the organ development that occurs during the fourth week of
development.
Fifth Through the Eighth Weeks of Development
34. Describe the rapid development of the embryo, which occurs during this time.
FETAL PERIOD
35. Discuss the development of the fetus, which occurs during this period.
36. Reference the pages indicated in the text that discuss the development of the
various body systems.
PRENATAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
Fetal Ultrasonography
37. Describe a sonogram and type of information obtained.
Amniocentesis
38. Discuss the timing of amniocentesis and the types of anatomical, cellular,
genetic, and biochemical conditions that may be diagnosed with this method.
Chorionic Villi Sampling
39. Discuss the timing, technique, and types of information derived from chorionic
villi sampling.
Noninvasive Prenatal Tests
40. Discuss the significance of maternal alphafetoprotein (AFP) test.
MATERNAL CHANGES DURING PREGNANCY
Hormones of Pregnancy
41. Compare the sources and functions of the hormones secreted during
pregnancy.
42. Discuss how early pregnancy tests work.
Anatomical and Physiological Changes During Pregnancy
43. Describe the relationship between maternal anatomical and physiological
changes associated with gestation.
44. Discuss the cause and consequences of pregnancy-induced hypertension.
EXERCISE AND PREGNANCY
45. Discuss the physical and temperature impact of exercise on the developing
child and the various ways to compensate for and still gain the benefits of
exercise.
LABOR
46. Outline the hormonal and neural regulation of the duration of pregnancy.
47. Describe the characteristics of the three stages of labor.
48. Describe the conditions that may necessitate alternative means of delivery.
ADJUSTMENTS OF THE INFANT AT BIRTH
Respiratory Organs
49. Discuss the respiration system adjustments of the infant at birth.
Cardiovascular Adjustments
50. Discuss the cardiovascular system adjustments of the infant at birth.
51. Discuss the problems faced by a premature baby.
PHYSIOLOGY OF LACTATION
52. Discuss the hormonal and CNS physiology involved in control of lactation.
53. Provide information on the advantages of breast-feeding for both the mother
and child.
54. Discuss the benefits of nursing accompanying childbirth.
INHERITANCE
55. Define inheritance and the general basis of combining and transmitting traits.
Genotype and Phenotype
56. Distinguish the basis of genotype from that of phenotype.
57. With regard to the human, specify the meaning of chromosomes,
homologues, genes, and alleles.
58. Using an example of a hereditary disorder, demonstrate how genotypes of
different combinations of dominant and recessive alleles are expressed as
phenotypes.
59. Show how the probability of a particular genotype can be made using a
Punnett square.
60. Discuss what happens to the genotype when disjunction occurs.
Variations on Dominant-Recessive Inheritance
61. Discuss the interactions of genes and the environment that commonly lead to
more complex expressions of a trait.
Incomplete Dominance
62. Describe the genotypes and phenotypic expressions that can occur with
sickle-cell disease.
Multiple-Allele Inheritance
63. Describe how multiple alleles (three), when present in varying combinations
of two (a genotype), can produce four blood types.
Complex Inheritance
64. Examine the effects of two or more genes or the combined effects of many
genes and environmental factors on inheritance.
Autosomes, Sex Chromosomes, and Sex Determination
65. Discriminate autosomes from sex chromosomes and combinations of the
latter that determine the physical sex of a child.
66. Explain the role of the SRY gene in determining gender.
Sex-Linked Inheritance
67. Discuss the location of alleles on X and/or Y-chromosomes that can be
illustrated to be the source of traits that are inherited differently for males and
females.
Red-Green Blindness
68. Show the ways in which the color-blind gene on the X chromosome can lead
to different genotypes between men and women and consequently lead to
distinct probabilities of acquiring a color-blind phenotype.
69. X-Chromosome Inactivation
70. Discuss the means and reasons for creation of a Barr body in the genome of
women.
Teratogens
71. Discuss the interactions of environmental conditions with genes that can
change their expression.
Chemicals and Drugs
72. Give examples of conditions associated with teratogenic changes of
chemicals and drugs.
Cigarette Smoking
73. Describe conditions that may result from cigarette smoking during different
stages of development.
Irradiation
74. Discuss how irradiation can effect genes and so produce mutations in
different stages of pregnancy.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
75. Define and discuss infertility, Down syndrome, and trinucleotide repeat
diseases.
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
76. Define medical terminology associated with development inheritance.