HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL
PSYCHOLOGY
THE HYBRID YEARS (1890-1969)
THOROUGHBRED YEARS (1970-PRESENT)
HYBRID YEARS-School Psy was a blend of many kinds of educational
and psychological practitioners centering around the
major role of psychoeducational assessment for special
class placement
-”add of certification”-teachers, counselors
THOROUGHBRED YEARS-growth of training programs, practitioners, state and
national associations, expansion of literature and
regulations
-since 1970 school psychologists have been employed in
positions titled school psychologists in states offering
school psy credentials for people completing training
programs for school psy and accredited school psy
programs
THE HYBRID YEARS(1890-1969)
PART I- 1890-1920
-changing status of children and youth
-social reform in late 19th and early 20th centuries lead to
origins of school psy services
-compulsory schooling, juvenile courts, child labor laws
mental health, vocational guidance, growth of institutions
serving children, and many child-saving efforts
-view that the child was the savior of society leading to
improving conditions of childrens’ lives particulary
through systematic education which was hope of society
to overcome many of the urban problems and fear about
the erosion of U.S. moral and economic values in the
waves of immigration, urban growth, and industrialization
*1920- Hoag and Terman saw children as the raw material
of a new state and the schools were seen as the nursery of
the nation
-attitude of schooling shifted from home to community
agencies
-more recently to individuation and children’s rights
-children were important and childhood became a stage in
the lifecycle, distinct from infancy and adulthood
-the children changed from and economic source of labor
to a psychological source of love and affection and the
next generation of American adults
**idea that by properly educating children society could
arise above its problem(theme in 20th Century educationdelinquency, unemployment,etc.)
-School curriculum was a major opportunity for societal
intervention
COMPULSORY EDUCATION1. Needed a more educated labor force
2. “Structural reinforcement”-need for social order and to
maintain the character and social structure of society
Labor unions -influenced and encouraged compulsory ed
and humanistic motivation
Enforcement of attendance laws 1890-1930 greatly
changed public education
Unprecedented growth and financial commitment to
public education
Remember, U.S. education in that era had great
immigration, compulsory education,and child labor laws
leading to the need for specialized school services
*** For the beginning of school psychology, the change
in the scope of schooling was far more important that the
change in the size.
-more children of diverse backgrounds for longer periods
of attendance
-many or little had no prior record of schooling and age
was not a reliable index or proper grade placement
PREVALENCE OF PHYSICAL AND MENTAL
DEFICITS
-Compulsory ed led to needed changes:
1. Mandatory medical inspections
Wallen 1914 described the poor general health of the
school population-dental, vision, malnutrition, T.B.,
hearing.
2.Wallin noted that mental defects and related educational
problems called for psychological inspections. His data
provided the basis for services for the exceptional child.
3.Emergence of Special Educationcompulsory ed was only gradually enforced for “normal
schoolchildren
-many states did not provide comprehensive services for
the disabled
-schools had all these children with disorders and
unproven interventions, especially in the major cities
-by 1910 special ed programs emerged
-medical and public health conditions improved
-fewer kids disabled due to physical health conditions
-early special ed classes were for truant, delinquent,
backward, adult-ed
-seriously atypical kids were usually educated in facilities
apart from regular school-segregated
-school psychologist often isolated from regular education
-these practices shifted to mainstreaming and inclusion
P.L.94-142 and Now IDEA-R
4. Emergence of School Psychological ServicesNeed experts to help in child selection, education
segregation, and increasing beureacratic segmentation of
public schools
***the resulting need for and growth of special ed
provided the “fertile ground” for the emergence of pupil
personnel services(attendance officers, guidance
counselors, school nurses, physicians, school
psychologists, school social workers, vocational
counselors)
School psychologist help educators sort kids reliably into
educational settings
-is a “gatekeeper” for special education
-is a “guest” in the house of education
-accounts for discrepancies between school psychologists
perceptions of roles and functions and those of school
administrators
Psychological services came from activities of Lightmer
Witmer at the psy clinic he founded at the U of Penn in
1896
***He is considered to be the father of both clinical and
school psychology.
-credited with coining the term “clinical psy”
-founded Psychological Clinic journal
-stressed individual approach to kids that would use
psychological knowledge to solve their problem,
especially school problems
***STANLEY G. HALL
-founded of APA in 1892 and several journals- American
Journal of Psychology and Journal of Genetic Psychology
-was the father of the child study movement
Early models of psychological services evolved from two
main orientations1. Idiographic (case studies)
2. Nomothetic
School psy continued to provide individualized psy
services while making categorical decisions for special
education along normative lines of deviance.
***the individual child study model using idiographic and
nomothetic data has been the main identity of school
psychologists
RISE OF CLINICS AND PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL
TESTING
-school and nonschool based clinics(sometimes called
research bureaus or child study departments) spread
quicky between 1900 and 1930
-child study services were provided to children by clinics
in juvenile institutions, courts, universities, hospitals,
vocational guidance, and other settings
-services were a mixture of educational and clinical
psychology-like modern day school psychology
**Developments of the late 19th Century in measurement
and psychology laid groundwork for the study of
individual differences and test standardization
**Testing MovementBinet and Simon in France and Terman in U.S. spurred the
individual testing movement
-WWI major influence in development of standardized
tests and their public acceptance
-Army Beta tests
after 1910 achievement tests
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY ROLES AND FUNCTIONS
-psychological and educational tests quickly became
the major identifying characteristic of psychologists
employed in the school setting.
- the administration and interpretation of these tests
became the primary role and function of early school
psychologists
-interventions were influenced by many ideas
-Thorndikes’ learning principles and educational
psychology
-educational philosophies like Dewey and James
-Freudian therapy
-Watson’s behaviorism
Prior to WWII interventions were a modest part of the
school psychologists role in our out of the school setting
-testing gave applied psychology and school psychology a
respectable methodology for practice
-Behaviorism linked to experimental psy was more readily
accepted and popular with educators in the 20th Century
-Individual land group counseling functions of
contemporary school psy have early origins in voc
guidance and Freudian theory and more recent origins in
Rogerian, Adlerian, Ellis(REBT), Maslow, Perls(Gestalt),
Sullivan, Wolpe, etc.
***But throughout the hybrid years the dominant thought
was diagnostic services for special ed placement which led
to the dominant school psy role model of psychological
assessment
***The term school psychologist in English lit emanated
from Steins(1911) article translated from German lit
-term clinical psy was in greater usage
-Development of distinct specialities occurred after the
1920's
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS AND TRAINING
-period of many journals -Journal of Educational
Psychology, The Psychological Clinic
-1st appearance of the term school psy in US lit and
several early articles and manuals describing the state of
services
-Wallin (1914) and Van Sickle et al (1911) most
comprehensive descriptions of school conditions, speciall
classes, psy services, nature of providers
-Gesell- wrote several manuals that were prototypical of
materials used by current state consultants for school psy
services
PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONSAPA founded in 1892 failed to respond to the interests of
applied psychology
1917-founded the American Association of Clinical
Psychology
1919 became the clinical section of APA
-had few state or local organizations
-few training opportunities
IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTORS
-Well-known school psys of the period :
Gesell, Henry Goddard, Getrude Hildreth, Leta
Hollingsworth, Bertha Luckey, Clara Schmidt, Lewis
Terman, John Wallin, Margaret Washburn, Lightmer
Witmer, Hellen Wooley
Early representation of women in school psy practice and
applied psy can be attributed to discrimination in academic
settings, lack of career options, and the feminization of the
teaching force
***In comparison to other psy fields, women have held
strong proportional representation throughout the history
of school psy (probably never less than 30% and currently
near 70%)
-Arnold Gesell (1880-1961) believed to have held the 1st
position titled “school psychologist” serving the
Connecticut State School Board of Education
his job was a mixture of direct and indirect services like
today
Growth mainly urban schools but were some rural services
THE HYBRID YEARS PART II 1920-1940
TRAINING AND CREDENTIALING
-to limited extent the professional symbols of automony
and regulation of training, credentialing, and practice were
discernible for school psy in 1920-1940
-1st training program in New York University in mid 20's
-late 1930's Penn State U offered doctoral training in
school psychology
-1980's NASP -National Certification in School
Psychology
LITERATURE
1ST TEXT about school psy in 1930
ROLE AND FUNCTION AND EMPLOYMENT
OPPORTUNITIES
Hildreth worked briefly as a school psy in Oklahoma and
her pioneer book reflects the mix of guidance and school
psy services
-the book showed possibilities of broader services
-psy testing continued to dominant the role and function
***more tests available
Adequate employment opportunities
Depression years had impact on employment but field
continued to grow
-By 1940 school psy was accepted nationwide and 500
practitioners were employed in the schools under varying
titles
-earlier clinic model was now widespread
-some rural areas gaining services through traveling clinics
-special ed increased demand for district-based psy
examiners
ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT
-1930- Association of Consulting Psychologists
-1937- American Association of Applied Psychologists
several AAAP state-level affiliates(Ohio)
THE HYBRID YEARS -PART III 1940-69
role confusion, shaping organizational identity, quantative
growth of training programs and practitioners
“baby boom”
1968 special ed serving more than 2 million children
1940-1970- school psychologists grew from 500 to 5,000
-number of formal training programs grew from 2 to more
than 100
-school certification to 40 states by 1970
-licensure in 1945
-licensure in all states by 1977
LITERATURE
APA-American Psychologist
1960's Journal of School Psychology, Psychology in the
Schools, Professional Psychology
***1st period school psychologists were writing books on
topics of their own interests and publishing journals for
school psychology
CONFERENCES
1954-Thayer Conference one of few comprehensive
surveys of school psy services
1963-Peabody Conference
state and regional conference
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
-school psy were less involved in licensure because they
were largely free from medical supervision in schools
-were credentialed by several State Department of
Education
-Postwar period important to school psy -conflict between
clinical and other psy specialities
-psy testing continued to dominant the role and function
1960's surveys-greater preference for consultation and
intervention
-Role dissatisfaction and preferences came from several
factors:
1.proposed alternative service systems
2.training programs-broader philosophy
3.federal education money
4.Learning Disabilities
5.emphasis of prevention and mental health
6.shift to brief therapy(behavior)
-struggles in civil rights, race, gender, ethnicity, sexual
preferences,
-increase of federal involvement in education
ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT
APA-Division 16-School Psychology
1st National Organization Identity
APA Convention Programs
March 1969 in St. Louis Convention- NASP officially
formed
THE THOROUGHBRED YEARS 1970-Present
1960's NCATE formal recognition for accreditation
more formal standards
certification more sophisticated
REGULAR AND SPECIAL EDUCATION
Legislation, associations growth, professional division and
reorganization
Factors that (1970's) to present that have strengthened our
identity and promoted more widespread services of school
psychology”
1. Larry P. vs. Riles (1984) focused on minority
assessment and placement issues-focused on the need for
more sensitive multicultural assessment, improved
technical adequacy of tests, broader conceptualization of
assessment, more responsible caseloads
2. Most significant event 1975- PL 94-142 Education of
All Handicapped Children Act- every school district
provide for and implement special education including
psychological services for all handicapped children
3. PL99-457 (1986) extended educational rights of
handicapped to birth
4. 1974 legislation regarding the handling and
confidentiality of school records(PL 93-380)
**Due process aspects of these laws had widespread
effects on the delivery of psy services(ie. Parent
permission)
Decline in regular ed enrollment ; special ed enrollment
went to 4.5 million children by late 1980's
-number of practitioners grew from 5,000 in 1970 to
10,000 by 1980 and 20,000 by 1988
Regular Education Intiative- 1980's and 1990's trend
toward serving kids with disabilities in regular education
settings
ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT
NASP-great growth
reactive to proactive model
1977-Great tension between NASP and APA over entry
level and title
1988-American Psy Society founded
NASP-1992 more than 16,000 members
began accepting state affiliate associations in early 1960's
FASP
PROFESSIONAL REGULATION
NASP National Certification
improving certification
NASP CARRIES THE NATIONAL BANNER FOR
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
LITERATURE
NASP -Communique
School Psychology Digest now School Psychology
Review
Best Practices in School Psychology
1986-School Psychology QuarterlY
School Psychology International
Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment
Special Services in Schools
more than 30 books in School Psychology
Handbook of School Psychology
TRAINING
more than 200 SDE approved programs accredited
ROLE AND FUNCTIONS
1970's surge of interests in school consultation and
organization/systems development
1970's intense special ed placement and litigation
late 1980's raising concerns about special education
Regular Education Intiative
Inclusison-Now
Changes in Americadropouts, single parent, divorced, economy, depression ,
suicide, substance abuse, violence, etc.
Shift from special ed to “at-risk”
direct and curriculum based assessment
consultation and collaboration
family assessment and intervention
functional assessment of behavior
violence prevention
anger management and etc.
Potential barrier to lasting role change is recent shortage of
practitioners:
higher caseloads
inadequate school budgets
modest salaries
role perceptions by school administrators
narrow concept of the nature of psy services in the schools
impact of technology-unclear
etc.