I. INTRODUCTION
The first humans to arrive in North America were hunters and gatherers. There is much
controversy as to the date of arrival, the entry points/areas and numbers. Previously the
consensus of opinions were that man crossed on a land bridge from Europe into what is
now Alaska and worked South all the way to the tip of South America. Recent
discoveries at a site known as Monte Verde in South America have challenged this
theory. Evidence now indicates that man arrived at several different areas within a time
span of a few hundred years. Although we may never know the specifics on how or when
this arrival occurred, the fact is man arrived and spread though out both continents within
two thousand years.
The weather was similar to present day weather, however the summers were slightly
cooler. There were more open grasslands edged with large forests. Food was plentiful in
all forms. Edible plants could be found during the normal growing seasons. The creeks
and streams contained abundant life in the form of fish and many varieties of clams. The
animals roaming the woods and fields were unaware of the new predator that had arrived
and were easily bagged. The large megafauna, although in decline due to the changing
weather patterns, had no fear of man. There were some predators man had to avoid such
as the large short-faced bear, Arctodus Simus, and other smaller animals that hunted in
packs. Most animals soon learned that man was to be feared and should be avoided when
ever possible.
Present day writings and descriptions of early man often refer to “primitive” man,
implying that they were backward thinking and not as smart as we are today. Do not
confuse intelligence with education. When you consider what was accomplished using
the materials available, early man demonstrated a very high degree of intelligence. Using
the three basic “building” materials; wood, stone, and bone, they accomplished the same
tasks modern man faces today. Stones were sharpened into cutting tools such as axes,
scrapers, projectile points, and knives. The stone tools were used for the construction of
shelters, digging edible roots and herbs, making weapons such as the Spear, the Atlatl,
and later the Bow and Arrow, for hunting and defense. They succeeded in solving the
basic requirements for obtaining what was needed for survival; shelter, food, and water.
They had mastered the art of creating and controlling fire. Life was not easy by today’s
standards, but all the necessities were available and plentiful. The early arrivals made do
with what was at hand and survived.
This presentation will emphasize the manufacture and use of Lithic Tools. Some subjects
require more time than is available, therefore enclosures are included that furnish greater
detail on several subjects.
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TOOL CONSTRUCTION
The three basic materials for construction of tools: wood, bone and stone, each present
inherent challenges of modification. The most difficult one to modify into tools is stone
or lithic materials. Lithic materials used for tool production are found throughout the
world. There are approximately 90 naturally occurring elements comprising the earth. In
the top 10 listing of the most plentiful, the first and second are oxygen and silicon. These
two elements bond into one of the most stable molecular compounds known, silicon
dioxide or silica. The silica molecules formed into “rocks” through several different
scenarios over geological time. Some of these rocks have the same chemical composition,
but both the physical appearance and internal structure of these rocks vary. Some may
exhibit crystals of various sizes (measured in microns) to those that do not have crystals.
Three primary factors determine the crystal size of silica: temperature, pressure and ph.
The different crystal sizes dictate which methods (grinding, pecking, or flaking) will be
used in tool construction.
Grinding and Pecking. Materials with visible crystals (macro crystalline) are modified by
these two techniques. Grinding is as implied, rubbing or sanding the item with a piece of
sandstone or with sand and a piece of wood to modify into a tool of desired size and
shape. Pecking is striking or hammering the item with another “rock” with just enough
force to remove some of the rock surface, usually producing a fine powder on the surface
of the planned tool. These two procedures are extremely slow when compared to the
following, flaking.
Flaking. Materials without visible crystal structures (microcrystalline/cryptocrystaline)
are modified with this technique. This process consists of striking the “rock” (called the
target) with some other object (the billet), which may be wood, stone, or bone. This
technique is called percussion flaking, and is further divided in direct or indirect
percussion. The control of the striking angle, support of the target, the amount of force in
the strike, and angle of the target, are all critical considerations to ensure a flake of the
desired size and length are removed from the exact area selected on the target. The
flaking process follows a prescribed format referred to as stages, normally six total.
Lithic materials are usually altered before working into a tool. There are two types of
alteration; thermal, commonly called “cooking” the rock, and water treatment, or soaking
the rock in water. If a material can be worked into a tool, the knapper usually alters the
material before proceeding. There are some lithic materials, those with extremely small
crystals or no crystals (amorphous) that are not affected by either type of alteration. . For
those that do exhibit improvement, thermal alteration works best. There are once again
many theories as to exactly what happens to the rock that is being heated. The electron
microscope indicates there is a change in the crystal when there is a crystal. Thermally
altering a rock enhances the control and removal of flakes, assisting the knapper in
producing a thinner and more symmetrical tool. The finished tool has a waxy appearance.
There is a slight decrease in the strength of a thermally altered tool.
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