Introduction to
Bilingual Education
Certification
Professional
Development
SLIDE 1: Introductory Slide
1
Teaching Science to Elementary Bilingual Students
SLIDE 2: Title Slide: Teaching Science to Elementary Bilingual
Students
Effective science instruction is important for all students – particularly for English
language learners. Science is an increasingly important part of our technological society.
Many of today’s jobs require some scientific understanding. Our level of scientific
understanding or lack of it can affect even our everyday decisions – from what we choose
to eat to which sunscreen we purchase.
Many of the skills developed through science instruction, like measuring, estimating and
predicting, are useful in real life. These skills also promote growth and understanding in
other subject areas such as mathematics and reading.
For bilingual students, effective science instruction provides rich and meaningful
contexts that help students make relevant connections between the natural world and
other subject areas. Science instruction enhances language development and promotes
higher-order thinking skills, while the use of effective language development strategies
facilitates mastery of science concepts and skills (Gee, 2004; Klentschy & Molina-De La
Torre, 2004; Lee & Fradd, 1998; Stoddard, Pinal, Latzke, & Canaday, 2002). Students
are presented with many opportunities to read, talk, listen and write about their science
experiences.
Finally, science instruction is required by No Child Left Behind legislation and by the
state of Texas. The Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills provides the curriculum
framework that describes what all students in the state of Texas should know and be able
to do in science.
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Elementary Science
Outcomes
2003 2004 2005 2006 ’03 all ’04 all ’05 all
74%
%
Met Standard
69% 64% 75%
4%
16% 26% 24%
%
Commended
Average
Scale Score
70%
72%
66%
1940 2016 2100 2202
The 2006 data listed are preliminary results and ‘06 all is not available at this time.
SLIDE 3: Elementary Science Outcomes
Let’s take a look at the Elementary Science TAKS student outcomes for 2003 –2005.
What trends do you notice?
The students at grade 5 will retest for math and reading in July ‘06 and thus the
preliminary data for ‘06 all are not available at the time of this printing.
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Elementary Science
Outcomes
In 2006, the preliminary state passing rate
for English science TAKS was 75% while
the passing rate for Spanish Science TAKS
was 31%.
Of all subjects tested at the elementary
level, the preliminary passing rate is lowest
for science.
SLIDE 4: Elementary Science Outcomes
Let’s take a closer look at student outcomes. While student outcomes on the elementary
science TAKS have improved over the years, only 31% of students taking the Spanish
elementary science TAKS test in 2006 met the passing standard according to the
preliminary results.
Of all the subjects tested on the elementary TAKS, the preliminary passing rate is lowest
for elementary science.
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SLIDE 5: Less is More…
Researchers who analyzed data from the Third International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS, 1995) found that in the top performing countries in the world, students
were presented with fewer science topics/concepts that they explored in greater depth. In
the U.S. they found the curriculum to be “a mile wide and an inch deep.” This means that
the broad and superficial curriculum used in most U.S. schools focused on too many
discrete, disconnected topics with no coherent structure to organize the ideas, details,
facts and definitions.
Effective elementary science teachers streamline the content of their curriculum so that
instead of covering many topics superficially, they “focus on the most important content
in enough depth that students understand, remember and apply what they have learned”
(Hartman & Glassgow, 2002, p.51).
National and state science standards like the TEKS, help teachers focus on the most
important and appropriate grade level science concepts and big ideas.
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SLIDE 6: Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills
The National Science Standards (1996) and the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills
(TEKS) clearly define what students need to know and be able to do. The standards and
TEKS identify the “big ideas” of science. Furthermore, these state and national standards
provide a clear and rational organization of ideas that helps students connect facts and
information.
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SLIDE 7: Vertically Aligned Curriculum
To insure that students are provided with appropriate grade level science instruction,
schools should examine their science curriculum to assess how well the curriculum is
aligned with TEKS. Eliminate “love units” – those that teachers love to teach, but are not
required by the science TEKS. By vertically aligning curriculum from Kindergarten
through fifth grade, schools can eliminate unnecessary repetition. While dinosaurs may
be of great interest to students and teachers, units of study on dinosaurs should not be
found at every grade level. When teachers teach concepts or topics that are not in their
grade level TEKS, they use time that could be better spent teaching TEKS-aligned
concepts.
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SLIDE 8: Process Skills
The processes of science are the mental and physical skills necessary for collecting,
organizing, explaining and evaluating science information. Process skills are basic to all
learning. Humans use process skills to structure sensory input as we speak, hear, read,
write, and think. Process skills are powerful tools that help us make sense of the world
around us. There are two types of process skills – basic and higher order integrated skills.
Students must master the basic process skills in order to utilize the more complex
integrated process skills. For instance, before a student can experiment successfully,
he/she needs to be able to observe, classify, predict, infer, and communicate.
The Basic Process Skills
 Observing
 Classifying
 Communicating
 Predicting
 Inferring
The Higher Order Process Skills
 Identifying and controlling variables
 Forming hypotheses
 Experimenting
 Interpreting data
 Making models
 Making graphs
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SLIDE 9: Observing vs. Inferring
Science is much more than a body of facts to be memorized. It is a way of learning about
the world around us. The basic process skills of observing, classifying, communicating,
predicting, and inferring form the basis of all human learning. These skills are also
critical to doing science.
Making observations is the primary way that humans obtain information. Observing does
not mean watching. When children observe, they use all five of their senses. Think of
attending a basketball game. Can you close your eyes and recreate the experience? What
do you see? Can you smell the odors? Can you hear the sounds of the band and the shouts
of the crowd? Can you taste the popcorn that you ate or feel the vibrations of the crowd’s
stomping feet?
Tools can improve our ability to make observations. The use of microscopes, telescopes,
thermometers, and rulers are examples of instruments that add precision to observations.
Teachers can stimulate students to make good observations by asking questions,
providing experiences, and encouraging students to use all of their senses.
It is also important to help students understand the difference between an observation and
an inference.
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SLIDE 10: Apple Observations with Real Apples
Prior to beginning the activity, put participants in groups of 3-5. Have groups choose a
recorder to record responses. Gather the materials listed below for this activity.
Time needed for this activity: approximately 15 minutes
MATERIALS: (a set for each group of 3-5 people)
a real apple
plastic knives
a plastic or wax apple
tape measure
a picture of an apple (in color)
magnifying glass
a card with the word “apple” printed on it
Say, “Now let’s try out your ability to make good observations. I’m going to give you
some tools to help you make better observations.” Give participants a plastic knife,
magnifying glass and tape measure.
Say, “Observe your apple carefully. Your group has 3 minutes to write down as many
observations about your apple as possible. Remember that you can use the tools I
provided to make more precise observations.” (Participants should be encouraged to
cut apples open in order to make better observations.)
After 3 minutes, have groups orally share their observations while you record them on a
large sheet of butcher paper or an overhead transparency. Make sure that all the recorded
answers are observations, not inferences.
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SLIDE 11: Apple Observations Using Models
Ask participants to remove the real apple from their table. Give each group a plastic or
wax apple. Ask, “How many of the observations listed about real apples can still be
observed about a model of an apple?”
Read aloud each observation listed on the chart paper. Ask participants if the observation
is still true of the model. Cross off any observations of real apples that no longer apply
when making observations of the model.
For example, if you have listed “red” on the observation list, ask participants if they can
still make that observation based on the model of the apple. Mark a line through every
observation that you can no longer make about apples. Now think about the example,
“red.” The plastic apple is red so red can remain on the list of observations. However, if
“sweet taste” is on the list, mark a line through that observation because you cannot
observe the taste of an apple using an artificial model. Go through the whole list of
observations, marking through those that are no longer observable using a model.
Most of the observations will remain on the list.
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SLIDE 12: Apple Observations Using Pictures
Now remove the apple models and provide each group with a picture of an apple.
(Pictures should be in color.)
Say, “Here is a picture of an apple (hand each group an index card that has a picture of
an apple glued to it) for you to observe.” Read aloud the list of observations again. As
you read each observation, ask participants if that observation still applies. Mark off any
observation that cannot be observed using a picture of an apple.
You will find that you will mark more of the observations off the list, now. For example,
you would mark off observations such as “bumpy,” “crunchy”, “sweet,” and “juicy.”
However, observations such as “red,” “has a stem,” “is more than one color’” and
“shiny” will remain on your list.
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SLIDE 13: Apple Observations Using Text
Final step of the activity.
Hand each group an index card with the word “apple” written on it. Ask group members
to look at the list of observations one more time.
Now go through the observation words again. You will mark off most, if not all, of the
words. For example, you would have to mark off words like red, smooth, crunchy, has a
stem, and fragrant.
Most, if not all, of the observations that were made of the real apple will now be marked
off the list.
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SLIDE 14: Discussion of Apple Activity
Discuss the apple observation activity with participants.
Ask:

Why are real world, first hand experiences so important in the teaching and
learning of science?
Hands-on experiences with real world objects, events, and organisms
provide a much richer context in which to learn science. Humans get
much more sensory input from manipulating real objects, organisms and
materials. Using familiar real world objects and having first hand
experiences activates students’ prior knowledge.

What is the best approach to teaching science to all students – especially English
language learners?
Using real objects and having first hand experiences is the best way to
promote science learning. However that is not always possible in science.
Sometimes we have to use models or other representations of real objects.
In the apple activity, the real apple provides the greatest sensory input for
us to learn more about apples. Note, that the model is better than a picture
and a picture is better than a word alone. However, by combining all of
these approaches – real world experiences, models, pictures, and text, we
get the most information possible
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.
SLIDE 15: Hands-on Activities and Field Experiences
The TEKS require students to have opportunities for laboratory and field experiences.
Classrooms today are filled with diverse learners who come to school with a variety of
levels of knowledge and experience. Not all children in a single classroom will have had
the same prior experiences or availability of learning resources. This makes it difficult for
a teacher to introduce instruction at the same beginning point with all students at the
same time.
When laboratory and field experiences are integral parts of science instruction, all
students have commonly shared experiences from which to begin learning about new
concepts.
Furthermore, hands-on activities and field experiences can activate prior knowledge by
giving ELL students a reference point for learning. This will help students connect things
they already know and are able to do with the new learning.
Finally, when teachers use hands-on activities and field experiences along with other
instructional strategies like reading and writing, the likelihood of reaching students
through their individual learning styles increases. All students are better served when
multi-sensory, multi-expressive, and multi-environmental experiences and opportunities
are provided.
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SLIDE 16: Effective Teaching Strategies for ELL
There are a number of effective strategies for teaching science to ELL students that will
promote concept attainment and link to students’ cultural experiences.
The use of “culturally familiar objects, contexts, examples, and analogies function can
enhance student learning” (Barba, 1995) by:
 Increasing acquisition of knowledge
 Increasing the rate at which students master content concepts
 Enhancing students’ self esteem
 Connecting “home learning” to “school learning”
Ethnoscience refers to the study of the contributions of ethnic groups such as Native
Americans and Hispanics to the science and mathematics knowledge base. When
students of varied ethnicities and nationalities learn about the contributions made by
people from their own cultural or racial backgrounds, they are more likely to feel that
they too can accomplish similar undertakings.
The use of visual representations such as models, pictures, diagrams, and drawings can
convey a great deal of meaning to ELL students. ELL students can also use these
representations to communicate or convey their own ideas about science.
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Slide 17: Effective Teaching Strategies - Graphic Organizers
Science content materials are often too complex and dense for English language learners.
Graphic organizers make content area information more accessible to second language
learners by converting complex information into manageable chunks. Graphic organizers
such as Venn diagrams, webs, and charts can help make difficult content more
understandable.
A graphic organizer is a visual and graphic display that depicts the relationships between
facts, terms, and or ideas within a learning task. Graphic organizers may be introduced as
advance organizers, before the learning task, or as post organizers, after encountering the
learning material.
Graphic organizers appear to be a very effective tool for improving vocabulary
knowledge and comprehension of all students, but are extremely effective for ELL
students. Graphic Organizers can also help students develop higher level thinking skills
and promote creativity.
Teachers should introduce graphic organizers, describe their purpose, and model their use
before asking students to use such strategies on their own.
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SLIDE 18: Concept Mapping
Semantic mapping or concept mapping is a form of graphic organizer that is used to
visualize, structure, and classify ideas. A concept map is a diagram used to represent
words or ideas that are linked to and radiate from a big idea or concept.
By studying a semantic map, ELL can clearly see the connections between ideas and
information on the map.
When students create their own concept maps, they are displaying their understanding of
the components of a concept. Teachers can use student-created concept maps as an
assessment tool to evaluate a students’ current understanding of a concept.
The map usually consists of words, connecting lines or arrows, and can include pictures.
The elements or ideas are organized into groupings, branches, or areas. Only the most
important ideas or components of a concept are included.
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SLIDE 19: Semantic Features Analysis
A semantic features analysis is a visual representation that can help ELL students make
comparisons. The first step is to develop a grid or chart like the one in the example.
Then, identify a category that you are exploring in your science teaching. For example, if
you are introducing different types of animals, you want students to understand the
critical features or characteristics of each animal. You may also want students to be able
to compare and contrast the characteristics of each animal with other animals.
Next, list the animals that you wish to compare in the column on the left and the features
or characteristics are placed in the row across the top of the chart.
Now, introduce the chart to the students and explain that you want them to decide if each
of the animals listed in the column has any of the characteristics listed in the row.
If the feature is present, put a plus; if it is not present, put a minus. If students are unsure
they can enter a question mark.
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SLIDE 20: Learning the Language of Science
While many teachers are aware of the importance of vocabulary to the understanding of science, many fail
to teach for conceptual understanding. Simply exposing students to a large number of new words does not
help students expand their vocabulary or develop conceptual understanding of the words. Teachers who
rush through vocabulary lessons, briefly and orally defining words, waste their time and frustrate their
students. Direct vocabulary instruction should be systematic and regular. Preferably, words should be
introduced through direct and authentic experiences in a variety of contexts. The teacher should identify
and point out important vocabulary used during a unit of instruction.
Guideline 1: Students learn new words best when they are taught through direct experiences.
Students develop the fullest understanding of vocabulary when they learn them from real rather than
vicarious experiences.
Guideline 2: It is more productive to identify and study a limited number of new words in depth
than to superficially introduce lists of words. A major responsibility of the science teacher is to decide
which words are critical for students to understand in order to construct conceptual meaning. It is better to
select 10 critical words for an in-depth study than to select 50 words that the students will define and
forget.
Guideline 3: Students must encounter a new word in many similar and differing contexts before
they learn it. Students need to encounter new words in a variety of contexts including oral discussions,
reading materials, and writing assignments in order to fully develop an understanding of a word. Students
who see and hear a word frequently will be more likely to make it a part of their listening, speaking,
reading, and writing vocabularies.
Guideline 4: Teachers should employ a variety of instructional approaches and activities to help
students learn new words. Instead of using the same techniques for vocabulary development over and
over again, employ a variety of activities to introduce words. Try the use of word walls, word webs,
semantic maps, and word games. Have students create their own dictionaries where they enter a general
meaning and illustrate the word.
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SLIDE 21: Teach the Language of Science
Every content area has its own specialized vocabulary. Science instruction introduces
many new or unique words to students. Even students who are fluent in their first
language may not have had opportunities to encounter such specialized vocabulary in
their daily lives.
The following strategies are helpful to ELL students as they learn the language of science
and as they learn English.
 Word walls in L1 and/or L2
 Attention to cognates
 Attention to scientific discourse patterns
 Semantic mapping
 Science journals
 Student-created dictionaries
Let’s look at some examples of these strategies on the next slides.
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Word Wall
Sistema Solar/Solar System
Español
sol
planeta
órbita
luna
cráter
galaxia
metéoro
English
sun
planet
orbit
moon
crater
galaxy
meteor
Picture
SLIDE 22: Word Walls
A word wall is a helpful strategy in all age-level classrooms to assist students in seeing
written vocabulary words that are significant to a particular topic. Words can be preidentified by teachers or can be recorded as students engage in discussions about their
science experiences. Students can be encouraged to add words to the word wall when
they come upon unfamiliar or interesting words during their own investigations.
Word walls provide a visual reference for students when speaking and writing about their
science experiences and ideas.
This is an example of a word wall for a unit on the solar system. Only the most important
words for students to understand have been listed on the word wall in L1 and L2.
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Cognates
Español
English
galaxia
galaxy
cráter
crater
atmósfera
atmosphere
metero
meteor
órbita
orbit
asteroide
asteroid
sistema solar
solar system
SLIDE 23: Cognates
Pointing out cognates helps students tap into their prior knowledge and connect new
learning with what they already know. Many technical science words have Spanish
cognates. The use of cognates helps students overcome the challenge of learning so many
new science words.
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SLIDE 24: Scientific Discourse Patterns
Familiarity with scientific discourse patterns is crucial in helping English language
learners understand and use scientific language (Maata, Dobb, & Ostlund, 2006).
Teachers should provide opportunities for students to practice reading and using
discourse patterns common to science.
The science teacher can guide ELL students into using scientific discourse patterns by
writing sentence stems commonly used in science discussions on the board or a chart.
For example, after exploring a set of materials, the teacher can ask students to predict
what will happen when each of the items is placed in a tank of water. Then the teacher
writes the following stem on the chalkboard or on a chart.
PREDICTING:
I think _______________________ will _____________________.
As students orally fill in the blanks to state their predictions, the teacher can record the
students’ responses. These completed patterns provide models of discourse to students.
Examples of completed patterns can be posted in the classroom so that students can refer
to them as needed. By reading and rereading these completed sentence patterns, students
develop greater confidence and fluency and will eventually internalize the speech pattern.
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Science Journals
ie
Sc
nc
e
al
rn
u
Jo
Integrates science and language arts skills
Helps students develop cognitive knowledge of
science content and processes
Enhances writing skills
Serves as an assessment tool to gather
information on students’ thinking
SLIDE 25: Science Journals
Student science journals or notebooks should be a part of effective science instruction.
Journal writing can support the development of students’ scientific thinking and help
them link new information with prior knowledge (Rivard, 1994).
ELL students may draw or write their observations or use a combination of both. By
documenting observations, recording findings, and creating charts and graphs in their
journals, students are creating a record of their learning.
Students should also be able to record questions and express their feelings and opinions
about the topics they’ve explored and the investigations they’ve completed in their
journals. This also makes the journal a tool that the teacher can use to assess student
learning and mastery of the content.
Teachers can also respond to students’ entries by writing back to students in their
journals. It is highly recommended that science teachers keep their own journals about
the classroom science experience and model journal writing for students.
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SLIDE 26: Integrating Reading and Science
The use of children’s literature can enhance the teaching and learning of science for all
students. However, teachers must never confuse reading about science with doing
science. Children’s texts used during science teaching units should serve as tools to
support science inquiry.
Books used during science instruction require meaningful contexts with accurate
portrayals of science and the processes of science. Illustrations should be of high quality
and accurate, too. Books should represent a balance of the different disciplines within
science – life, earth, and physical.
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SLIDE 27: Strategies for Integrating Literature and Science
Teachers should include a balance of informational and fiction books. Informational
books are generally scarce in the elementary classroom, but, as evidenced by the
emphasis on reading expository text as part of high stakes testing, handling expository
text is an important skill for all students to master. Yet, in a recent study, primary
teachers reported that they used expository text only 6% of the time (Pressley, Rankin,
and Yokoi, 1996)).
Teachers should also strive to use a variety of informational texts. These include:
 Expository text – These texts are generally reports that do not have a story line or
characters. They cover topics such as ants, oceans, and trees. For example, El
Círculo de las Calabazas (Pumpkin Circles) by George Levenson provides a
wealth of information about the life cycle of pumpkins in an engaging picture
book format.
 Narrative/informational text – These texts present factual information in a
storybook format. Many biographies and autobiographies are
narrative/informational books. A good example of this type of book is La
Tortilleria by Gary Paulsen.
 Mixed texts – Many children’s books mix narrative and expository structures in
the same book. A great example of this type of book that is often used in science
instruction is the Magic School Bus series by Joanna Cole.
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The 5 E Instructional Model
Engage
Explore
Explain
Elaborate
Evaluate
SLIDE 28: The 5 E Instructional Model
The 5 E instructional model is based on the constructivist approach to teaching and
learning. This approach assumes that learners build or construct new ideas on top of their
prior knowledge. Each of the E’s describes a phase of learning, and each phase begins
with the letter E: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate. During each phase
of the lesson, students study the same science concept – promoting deeper conceptual
understanding.
The 5 E lesson cycle allows students and teachers to experience common activities, to
use and build on prior experiences, to construct meaning, and to continually assess their
understanding of a concept.
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SLIDE 29: Engage
Engagement is the initial phase of the 5 E instructional model. The basic purpose of the
engagement activity is to help students make connections with prior knowledge. The
engagement should be a problem or event that stimulates student interest and motivates
students to want to discover more about a concept.
Examples of Engagement activities:
 Short video/audio clip
 Current event
 Question posed by the teacher
 A reading from a book or poem
 Riddle
 Demonstration
Teacher Behaviors
 Raise questions and encourage responses
 Assess prior knowledge
 Motivate and create interest in the concept
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SLIDE 30: Explore
The basic purpose of the exploration is to provide a set of common experiences from
which students can help each other make sense of a concept. This is always a hands-on
activity.
Teacher behaviors:
 Structure a guided inquiry for students
 Observe students
 Guide students through questioning and prompting
 Structure exploration as a cooperative activity
Students should
 Be allowed to “mess about” with materials and ideas, within limits of safety and
practicality
 Observe, classify, measure, predict, infer and communicate
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SLIDE 31: Explain
During the Explanation phase of the 5 E model, students describe and discuss what they
have experienced and try to make sense of how this new information fits with their prior
knowledge.
The teacher facilitates the discussion by questioning, prompting, and providing scientific
vocabulary when needed. This is the most appropriate time for teachers to provide
explanations and introduce specialized science vocabulary
Student Behaviors
 Construct their own explanations in their own words
 Revise their ideas as they participate in discussion
 Compare their current ideas with their initial ideas
 Use science labels and terminology where appropriate
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The 5 E Instructional Model
Elaborate
Elaboration activities provide new
opportunities for students to continue to
explore the same concept addressed in earlier
stages of the learning cycle. Students can
apply and extend their understanding of the
concept in a new setting.
SLIDE 32: Elaboration
During the Elaboration phase of the 5 E lesson, students have opportunities to extend and
expand what they learned about a concept in the first three phases of the lesson.
Student Behaviors
 Apply previous learning in a new context or situation
 Use appropriate science terms and vocabulary
 Draw reasonable conclusions based on evidence
 Observe, record and analyze data
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SLIDE 33: Evaluation
The purpose of the evaluation phase is to assess students’ understanding and mastery of
the concept. The evaluation activity does not necessarily have to be a paper/pencil task. It
may be a performance task where students demonstrate skills or knowledge. For example,
students might demonstrate that they can use a scale to determine the mass of objects
before and after a physical change.
Teacher Behaviors
 Observe students as they apply new concepts and skills
 Assess the level of students’ knowledge and skills
 Look for evidence that student thinking has changed or grown
 Allow opportunities for students’ to assess their own knowledge and skills
Examples of Evaluation Activities:
 Journal writing
 Drawing or illustrating
 Letter writing
 Demonstrating a skill like measuring
 Designing a model
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SLIDE 34: Create your own 5 E lesson plan.
Provide a variety of Teacher Editions of science text books and other science
resources for the next activity.
Pass out copies of the sample 5 E lesson plan on soil. Ask participants to read through the
lesson. Provide time to discuss any questions participants might have about designing a
5 E lesson.
Then put participants in groups of 3 and have them select a concept based on a grade
level TEKS to write their own 5 E lesson plan.
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Elementary
Spanish Science
 Has TAKS Science Spanish Objectives and TEKS
Student Expectations that are assessed from grades 3-5.
 Includes grades 1-5 in Spanish!
 Gives highlights from TAKS and Texas English Language
Proficiency Standards (ELPS).)



To download copies:
http:www.tea.state.tx.us/curriculum/biling
Go to documents and Science Chart 1 & 2
Bridging II TAKS
Trainers available
throughout the state!
For more information
contact: The Texas
Regional Collaborative
in your area.
http://ci06.edb.utexas.edu/trc/
SLIDE 35-37: Resources.
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For More Information Contact:
Dr. Frank Lucido
Program Director
Institute for Second Language Achievement
flucido@falcon.tamucc.edu
361-825-2672
SLIDE 38: ISLA-Contact Information.
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References
Gee, J.P. (2004). Language in the science classroom: Academic social languages as the
heart of school-based literacy. In E. W. Saul (Ed.), Crossing borders in literacy
and science instruction (pp. 340-354). Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.
Hartman, H.J. & Glasgow, N.A. (2002). Tips for the science teacher: Research-based
strategies to help students learn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Klentschy, M. P., & Molina-De la Torre, E. (2004). Students’ science notebooks and the
inquiry process.
In E. W. Saul (Ed.), Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction (pp. 340-354).
Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.
Lee, O. & Fradd, S.H. (1998). Science for all, including students from non-Englishlanguage backgrounds. Educational Researcher, 27, 12 – 21.
Maatta, D., Dobb, F. & Ostlund, K. (2006). Strategies for teaching science to English
learners.
In A.K. Fathman & D. T. Crowther (Eds.), Science for English Language Learners: K-12
strategies. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.
Rivard, L.P. (1994). A review of writing to learn in science: Implications for practice and
research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31(9), 969-983.
Stoddard, T., Pinal, A., Latzke, M., & Canaday, D. (2002). Integrating inquiry science
and language development for English language learners. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 8, 664-687.
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