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B1. Ecology and Life
Chapter objectives.
Ecology is the biological science of living relationships.
This chapter aims to:
1. Introduce ecology and how life is defined.
2. Show how life is categorised and organised.
3. Explain living systems, processes & interactions.
B1.1. Ecology - basic ingredients
Biology is the scientific study of life. Ecology is the branch of biology which investigates living
relationships - the science of organization and interaction between different organisms, living
systems they inhabit and their physical environments. There is much less research into the
large-scale systems of ecology compared to the small-scale systems of molecular biology. As we
see the fragility of our world, the future of life depends on human understanding of this subject.
We need more ecologists if we are to manage the many predictions
of global ecological crisis.
Of particular concern are the abundance of life and the
distribution of life. Three primary subjects studied by ecology are:
1. Organisms
2. Interactions
3. Communities
To these traditional areas of discussion in ecology must be added a
fourth major concern, since life cannot be considered in isolation
from the impacts and pressures placed on it by relentless forces of
global change, industrial technology and the expansion of
human-dominated ecosystems:
4. Ecological ethics
Q1.
What other areas of knowledge do you think are important for a young
ecologist to have a working knowledge of, beyond 'natural' ecosystem
interactions?
Q2. Are the soil, water and sky parts of the ecological community?
.
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B1.2. Ecology - the cast of characters
Life is defined by science to have particular characteristics: birth, metabolism (synthesis of
energy from the environment), growth, replication (capacity for reproduction), hereditary
variation, adaptation (evolution by natural selection), inner program (DNA, genetics), organic
(carbon-based) chemistry in an aqueous medium, systems behaviour (self-organization,
feedback) and complexity (emergent properties like consciousness). Also relevant to the future of
life are systems which display most of the above characteristics and behaviours, having their own
ways of 'living'. These include viruses, ideas (the 'meme'), human institutions, technologies,
software (e.g. 'genetic' algorithms), and possible future developments in artificial intelligence
and nanotechnology.
The classification of living organisms into a logical hierarchy of groups is called taxonomy.
Biology subdivides life in the following manner: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus
and Species. A commonly used five-kingdom system is Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista and
Monera (bacteria). Communities are assemblages of species in the same habitat. Species are one
of the fundamental units of biology (along with genes, organisms and communities), referring to
a genetically and anatomically distinctive groups of organisms capable of breeding. Species are
written down in italics with a capitalised genus name followed by the species name (e.g. the
human species is Homo sapiens).
Habitat is the home or environmental space in which an organism lives and grows. Examples
shown in Table 1 are large-scale habitats, but boundaries typically merge. Habitats range down in
size to a particular forest community, leaf, pond or the specific localised conditions of
microhabitat. Each species has its ecological niche, or the tactics or role to play in the
community as defined by its food, shelter, foraging habitat, mating season and interactions with
other individuals and species. Keystone species play key roles, linking together community and
ecosystem structure (e.g. the dominant vegetation type of a habitat, specialised micro-organisms
etc.), making them essential conservation targets. An ecosystem is the collected cast of
characters, connected in a balanced performance of networked systems, subsystems, processes,
flows and cycles. Conservation effort is most effectively directed at larger-scale units such as
communities, habitats, ecosystems and vulnerable biodiversity hotspots (Figure 1).
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life, and is studied at the scales of genetic diversity, species
diversity and ecosystem diversity. There have been around 1.8 million species so far described,
but the majority of invertebrates and micro-organisms remain undiscovered. Estimating the total
number of species uses extrapolation from ecological models, scaling up a well known region or
taxon to the global level. Most estimates range from 10 to 50 million, but perhaps even up to 100
million species alive on Earth. Around 13,000 new species are catalogued each year. There are so
many kinds of insects that a young ecologist on a trip to the Amazon could easily discover and
name a new species of beetle. The inventory of life is the most exotic unmapped territory
remaining to science.
Q3. Where does the human species fit into the above cast of characters?
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Table 1: Large scale communities and habitats (also called ecotypes or biomes)
Polar (Arctic):
Coniferous Forest:
Deciduous Forest:
Montane:
Temperate Rainforest:
Tropical Rainforest:
Coral Reefs:
Oceans:
Riparian:
Estuarine:
Sclerophyll Forest:
Savannah:
Deserts:
Polar (Antarctic):
Figure 1:
Land of the polar bear
Northern cold-temperate pine forest (also called boreal forest or taiga)
Distinctly seasonal forests which shed their leaves in winter
High-altitude (cold-adapted) mountain ecosystems
Mid-latitude moist closed-canopy evergreen forest
Warm moist closed forest containing Earth's greatest biodiversity
Tropical coral reef containing the greatest marine biodiversity
Littoral (shallow), neritic (continental shelf) & oceanic (deepwater)
Rivers, lakes and deltas, the essential fresh water habitats
Intertidal bays & river mouths essential as fish nursery-grounds
Mainly hard-leaved (dry-adapted) forests such as Eucalyptus
Dry grasslands with widely-dispersed trees, such as the African plains
Arid (low rainfall) environment with little permanent vegetation
Land of the penguin
Biodiversity Hotspots (known forest & heath habitats only)
Source: E.O. Wilson (1992) The Diversity of Life p.250-251
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B1.3. Ecology - the action
How do organisms and communities change and arrange, and how have the
characteristics and diversity of life changed over the long term? This is the
subject of evolution, and the discovery by Charles Darwin (On The Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection, 1859) of a mechanism by which a
lineage can adapt into greater complexity through a series of incremental
changes to suit its environment. Natural selection is the 'survival of the fittest'
idea, where evolutionary success in the struggle for life goes to those
replicators (e.g. genes, organisms) best adapted to reproduce descendants in
competition with other living forms. Small genetic changes which are adaptive
to the environment will bestow competitive advantage, and aid the manoeuvre of the lineage into
new niches.
In building up civilizations, the human species has also designed its institutions around models
of competition and the struggle for fitness (witness major historical activities such as warfare,
economics and politics). Almost forgotten in all this competitive activity has been the more
fundamental interaction exemplified by ecology: namely cooperation.
Fundamentally, the functioning of ecosystems is a broadly cooperative enterprise. A base
framework of cooperation must underlie competitive surface activity; for example even ruthless
business competition must rely upon adherence to a cooperative framework of financial and
trade regulations. Models of cooperation (e.g. open-source software, multilateral agreements) are
increasingly recognised as necessary models for the future.
Close cooperation between two or more species is referred to as
symbiosis, or a symbiotic relationship. It's called mutualism
when both species benefit from the association, commensalism
when only one species gains advantage, and parasitism when
damage is done to the host. Specialised cooperation increases
dependence of one species on the evolutionary success of the
other. In some sense, the whole plant and animal kingdoms are in
broad mutual symbiosis, with animal respiration involving
conversion of oxygen into carbon dioxide, and plant
photosynthesis involving conversion of sunlight and carbon
dioxide into energy and oxygen (which is why tropical
rainforests are the 'lungs of the Earth'). Fungi and bacteria are
decomposers, creating life after death by recycling dead nutrients into a form usable by plants.
Another example of mutual symbiosis is plants and their pollinators, a delicate evolutionary
dance between nectar-producing flowers and pollen-transporting insects.
Q4.
The human species is constantly interacting with natural ecosystems of the
Earth. What kind of symbiotic relationships do we have? Does human
activity generally seem to be in cooperation with, or in competition with
nature?
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B1.4. Ecosystems - structure and function
Commoners' laws of ecology ('Ecology for Beginners')
a) everything is connected to everything else
b) everything must go somewhere
c) nature knows best
d) there's no such thing as a free lunch.
As the name implies, an ecosystem is a type of complex system, the structure and
function of which can be described by systems theory. The difference between a system and a
bundle of parts is that the elements of a system are functioning together as an interconnected
whole. At its simplest, a system is a web or
network, a model highlighting the intersection
points (nodes) and flow routes (links). For example,
a food web is a network flow diagram with a series
of links between predators and their prey. Flows
may be one-way or both ways along a link, and
matter or energy are often transformed at a node.
Analysis of how factors change with time is the
study of system dynamics. System dynamics are driven by a series of operations called
processes. Examples of ecological processes include chemical transformation, genetic exchange
and mass transfer, and actions at such micro-scales have impacts at the scale of organisms and
communities.
Complexity theory is the study of natural information patterns and the predictability of systems.
Just because a system is complex (which means unpredictable) doesn't imply that it's
complicated (which means difficult to understand). Actually, one of the amazing things about
systems is that they have common features and follow similar general rules across many different
scales and levels of organisation. Knowledge of systems and complexity allows connections
between many different disciplines to become apparent.
Systems are composed of many subsystems 'nested' hierarchically within them. Complex
interactions and cybernetic feedback (flows of changes which are self-reinforcing or
self-regulating) in the subsystems result in unpredictable collective behaviours in large-scale
systems called emergent properties - the emergence, at a certain level, of new order and
simplicity from a sea of complexity. For example, science tries to 'explain' life as an emergent
property of interacting molecular subsystems. In any case, the
important thing is that when nodes or links are altered or
removed, a system must find stability by rearranging itself into
a new structure. The dilemma for ecology is that human
rearrangement of its parts, towards and beyond unknown
thresholds (breaking-points), is likely to cause life-threatening
non-linear dynamics (dramatic changes or phase shifts) in the
stability and habitability of the entire global ecosystem.
Q5. Compare and contrast any two systems of your choice.
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Student Activity:
This simple natural scene could be from your local backyard or park. Draw a quick
sketch or network flow diagram showing hidden ecological interactions (e.g.
predator-prey relations) and cycles (e.g. energy, matter). Involve other important
nodes (e.g. micro-organisms, soil) beyond the existing sun, bird, lizard, caterpillar,
and plants (represented here by Bodhi leaves).
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B2. Biodiversity and Extinction
Chapter objectives
Biodiversity is genetic, taxonomic and ecosystem variety.
What is the significance of species extinction?
This chapter aims to:
1. Highlight the importance of biodiversity & its loss.
2. Discuss extinction & past/present mass extinctions.
B2.1. Biodiversity.
Biodiversity is the variety and richness of life on earth, measured at different levels such as the
diversity of genes, species, higher taxonomic groups, and ecosystems. Genetic diversity
increases reproductive fitness, allowing outbreeding and adaptation to environmental change.
Species diversity is required for the effective functioning of ecological communities. Ecosystem
diversity provides habitat and the highest-level richness of the world. In simple terms,
biodiversity makes life more interesting.
Attempts to resurrect extinct species (popularised by 'Jurassic Park') have not yet been
successful. A project of the Australian Museum to resurrect the thylacine, or Tasmanian tiger, has
recently been cancelled. Another project unable yet to be completed was to resurrect the
mammoth from tissue samples preserved in permafrost. Mixing of genetic material with that of a
host egg cell does not reproduce the pure original form.
Cloning research and cryopreservation (preservation by freezing) of DNA, cells, gametes and
embryos in genome resource banks, despite limited current applications, are potential
investments in the future of conservation. The first successful natural breeding of cloned male
and cloned female American wildcats was reported in August 2005, which offers proof of
principle for efforts to clone extinct species. It will need to be tested over further generations
however.
Seed banks and captive breeding programmes in zoos are also very important for endangered
species. However, technological breeding methods must not also breed complacency. After all, it
will be technically impossible to replicate or replace the most important unit of biodiversity viable whole ecosystems.
Q1. Discuss differences between prevention and cure. Can extinction be
‘cured’?
Q2.
.
How are seed banks useful for conservation and agriculture?
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B2.2. Biodiversity - the drama
Extinction is the death, and loss for ever from the Earth, of a
genetic lineage of a species. Extinction can be viewed as a
tragedy, although it has happened throughout biological history.
Even from a purely human centered view, ignoring any intrinsic
moral value of life, extinction means we lose essential ecosystem
support services, potential new information, ideas, patterns,
processes, foods, chemicals, products and may impact on other
economic, aesthetic and spiritual values.
Threatened species are those at risk of extinction, indicated by
rapid decline of population, limited extent of occurrence, models
of ecological disturbance or fluctuation, projected habitat loss or
fragmentation, and/or low absolute number of remaining
individuals. Along the descending journey, threatened species
pass through the categories of 'vulnerable', 'endangered',
'critically endangered' and 'extinct in the wild'. A 'ghost species'
is a non-viable population, or the ‘living dead’ with negligible
chance of escaping extinction.
What happens to an ecosystem when some of its inhabitants go
extinct? Feedback interactions occur, and the fluctuations of the adjusting system put further
species at risk. If a keystone species is affected, the repercussions may include rapid and
dramatic unravelling of the whole community. As a well-known example, hunting of the
north-eastern Pacific sea-otter for its fur allowed its sea-urchin prey to grow to excessive
population size, resulting in the decline of beautiful kelp forests in favour of an exposed-seabed
community with reduced biota. Similarly, if a seemingly-successful population expands beyond
the limits of its food or resource-base, loss of equilibrium and catastrophic population decline
typically follow, unleashing the 'Four Horsemen': conflict, famine, pestilence and death.
Risk factors which make a group more susceptible to extinction include some of the following
characteristics: small population size (rarity is the predominant risk factor), narrow geographic
distribution, niche or habitat specificity, large body size, symbiotic dependence on other species
(e.g. for pollination), narrow diet, low dispersal ability, slow reproduction, morphological
ornateness, susceptibility to stress, and stenotypy (or specialised lifestyle with limited
adaptability). Bad luck can perhaps also be mentioned, as there seems to be a random component
to the fossil record of mass extinctions. Furthermore, weird and wonderful adaptations,
seemingly beneficial over the short term, such as over-reliance on symbiosis or strange features
resulting from evolutionary arms races, may in fact be detrimental to survival over the longer
term, leading unwitting species down a potentially dead-end path known as an evolutionary
cul-de-sac.
Q3.
Is it possible that the human species is in an evolutionary cul-de-sac (dead
end street)? Which behaviours, seemingly adaptive over the short term,
may be disadvantageous to our survival over the longer term?
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B2.3. Extinction
Five mass extinction events of the geological record are flagged and graphed by loss of whole
families in Figure 2. The big five should act as warnings. They marked the end of the
Ordovician, Devonian, Permian, Triassic and Cretaceous (extinction of the dinosaurs) geological
periods, and seem to have been caused at different times by combinations of climate change,
comet or meteorite impact, super-volcanism, marine regression and/or broad ecological
restructuring or collapse. A case in point is death by suffocation, such as when the evolutionary
blossoming of photosynthesis created a (then) toxic oxygen-rich atmosphere, or during the
Permian extinction with up to fifty percent less oxygen postulated for a temporary period. Mass
extinctions may occur over millions of years, or may take only a few decades depending on
whether the cause is gradual (uniformitarianism) or suddenly nonlinear (catastrophism).
Researchers have differing opinions on the causes and history of extinction as interpreted from
the fossil record. Despite vigorous debate about the past, most experts in evolution or ecology
display uncanny agreement about the present. As an example in the following quote, from within
a minority view - uniformitarian argument - for gradual change during past eras, we nevertheless
see emerge the majority-view which is warning of catastrophism for the present era.
"Although the fossil evidence does not support the concept of historical mass extinctions
or mass killings, there is a catastrophic extinction event occurring in contemporary time.
Raven (1990) has estimated that, by the first quarter of the 21st century, the world will
have lost 2 million out of a minimal world total of 10 million animal species and about
65,000 out of 300,000 species of vascular plants. These losses, due to habitat
destruction by humans, are occurring with a rapidity that is unprecedented in
Phanerozoic time. Historic extinction episodes were so gradual that many lineages were
able to accommodate in an evolutionary and ecological sense. The tempo of the current
extinctions precludes any such adjustments."
John Briggs (1994) 'Mass Extinctions: Fact or Fallacy?' p.235-6
Figure 2: History of Biodiversity Illustrating Mass Extinction Events
Q4.
Do you agree it is likely we have now entered the sixth great mass
extinction?
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"I will consider only species being lost by reduction in forest area … I will not
include overharvesting or invasion by alien organisms. I will assume a number of
species living in the rain forests, 10 million (on the low side), and I will further
suppose that many of the species enjoy wide geographical ranges. Even with these
cautious parameters, selected in a biased manner to draw a maximally optimistic
conclusion, the number of species doomed each year is 27,000. Each day it is 74,
and each hour 3."
E.O. Wilson (1992) 'The Diversity of Life' p. 268
Change in global biodiversity is measured by a simple equation - number of speciations
(evolutions of new species) minus number of extinctions. The average longevity of a species is 1
to 10 million years, only about half that for mammals. Estimated normal 'background' extinction
has been estimated at less than one species per million per year. How are we managing the
living world at this moment? As usual estimates vary, but the important thing is that detailed
scientific studies agree the current extinction rate is very large. The above quote is based on
decades of study and satellite imagery observations of habitat destruction and fragmentation
in tropical rainforests (the most biodiverse terrestrial ecosystem) by Thomas Lovejoy and E.O.
Wilson. Empirical biogeography theory indicates that a tenfold decrease in habitat area removes
approximately half of existing species. The quote below reflects scientific predictions for tropical
coral reefs (the most biodiverse marine ecosystem) in a world of global warming, susceptible to
widespread death by coral bleaching, where essential symbionts of coral polyps (tiny
dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae) are lost and the reef dies a barren white.
Nevertheless, average biodiversity has increased over the long-term history of life (Figure 2), the
rebounds partly explained by species selected for extinction resistance taking advantage of
vacated niches. Unfortunately however, recovery of biodiversity is slow enough to ensure that
even if Homo sapiens were to survive a mass extinction event, we would live in an impoverished
world for longer than our expected natural lifespan.
"Even under the best case scenario, losses of at least 50% of the [Great Barrier] Reef's
living coral cover are likely to occur by 2050. How humans will be affected by these
changes is still uncharted yet is enormously important." (p.1), "Projections of changes
in water temperature do not bode well for coral and the reefs that they help build.
Already increases in water temperature of only 0.6°C since 1880 have increased the
bleaching and mortality of reef-building corals across the planet … These levels of
change in sea temperature are unsustainable by corals growing where they are today,
even under the milder scenarios in which seas only warm by 2°C." (p.54), and "these
temperatures will exceed the local thermal tolerances of reef-building corals on annual
basis by 2030-2060. The calculated thermal stress levels rise to several-fold higher than
those seen in 2002 and lead to the highly probable conclusion that reefs dominated by
coral will be rare in the Great Barrier Reef region by 2050." (p.84)
Hans & Ove Hoegh-Guldberg (2004) 'The Implications of Climate Change
for Australia's Great Barrier Reef'
Q5.
Everyone dies. But can Homo sapiens, the human species, go extinct?
How likely do you think it might be over short, medium and long
time-scales? What are the alternatives to extinction?
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B3. Ecological Ethics
Chapter objectives.
This chapter aims to introduce concepts of ecocentrism and
stewardship, and to encourage awareness of ecological
ethics.
B3.1. Points of View
Ecological ethics has typically been subsumed by anthropocentric (human-centred) and
individual-centric concerns (for example, the focus on individual moral choice and autonomy in
recent ethics). A biocentric viewpoint is the view from an individual living organism, like a tree
or a dog. Ecocentrism is to view a problem from the perspective of a whole ecosystem, and it
comes from an awareness that we are only part of a larger system.
Ecological ethics education can be made even more effective with understanding of actions
played out at the systems level and group level. Concepts of collective wisdom and human
maturity as a species are important here. Homo sapiens is a young and new species, having been
around for less than 200,000 years or so. Ethical choices and consequences ought to be assessed
on the scale of large groups, at the systems level, over the long term, to non-human as well as to
human life and wellbeing.
Q1. Can you think of occasions when you view ethical questions ecocentrically?
B3.2. The Gaia Hypothesis
Almost the largest relevant system and scale is the planet as a whole, also known as Gaia, named
after the Greek mother goddess of the Earth. James Lovelock's hypothesis, proposed in Gaia - A
New Look at Life on Earth (1979), views the planet as a living super-organism. As well as life
adapting to its environmental conditions, it proposes that the homeostatic (or balanced and
self-organising) planet, the sum of all its living interactions, in turn acts to optimise surface
conditions for the maintenance of life.
Q2. Do you think our planet as a whole can be classified as one living organism?
.
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B3.3. Stewardship
Humans are not the only animals to feel emotions and pain (damaged ecosystems in fact exhibit
widespread animal suffering), but our species has exhibited conscience and intelligence. We
invented tools and civilisations, and derived management and ethical systems beyond what we
know are the capabilities of other known forms of life. With such power also comes
responsibility. In this case our responsibility is stewardship, or the protective guardianship of
Spaceship Earth and its living systems.
Should we be technocentric, placing trust in future technology to save us from the mess we
make of the Earth, or should we be ecocentric and remain within known limits and principles of
ecology with adequate precaution, prevention and preservation of critical life-support processes?
We are probably not alone across the myriad galaxies, just as we no longer think we're at the
centre of the solar system or universe. There’s a theory which says that lack of verifiable contact
with extraterrestrials is because 'intelligent' life quickly tends to destroy itself with its own
technology! Instead of such a gloomy prognosis, taking a different path we could yet add to
Gaia's definitional features of life - like providing replication and heredity through 'terraforming',
the potential future technology of seeding other planets. This would of course open up a whole
new ethical debate, but will we be around long enough for our technology to progress that far?
We can be, but only if we choose soon, and utilise the scientific and ecological management
tools of the subject known as environmental science.
Sustainable living involves not just efficient agriculture, but also minimizing our energy use and
pollution. The type of research that is required for a transition to a lasting earth is of three broad
types. One is the use of science to discover the workings of nature, such as elemental cycles,
and developing technology for energy and resource conservation. Another is economic systems
that are consistent with sustainable living. We need a fresh approach to add to the battle of
protecting the environment. In the long term the most important approach is a lasting change of
human attitudes to those that are compatible with sustainable life. We need lifestyle change.
We cannot isolate any environmental problem from the whole crisis of modern life. The
environment is influenced mainly by human behaviour, national and international development,
economics and politics.
Q3. Consider the table on the following page and consider where your
community is in the evolution of ecological ethics? Do you think there are
some differences in the evolution of these concepts in different cultures?
(See also p.62)
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B4. Environmental Science
Chapter objectives.
Environment includes both natural and human systems.
This chapter aims to:
1. Survey the wide range of environmental problems.
2. Introduce a basic understanding of environment,
science, measurement and models.
3. Demonstrate environmental science and management
tools, techniques and solutions.
* World Scientists' Warning to Humanity *
from the Union of Concerned Scientists
(signed by 1600 leading scientists from 71 nations, 1992)
"Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course...
No more than one or a few decades remain before the chance to
avert the threats we now confront will be lost and the prospects for
humanity immeasurably diminished. WARNING: We the
undersigned, senior members of the world’s scientific community,
hereby warn all humanity of what lies ahead. A great change in our
stewardship of the Earth and life on it is required, if vast human
misery is to be avoided and our global home on this planet is not to
be irretrievably mutilated."
B4.1. Environmental Problems
Much attention has been focused in previous decades on problems of
the environment, human nature and human governance… but the
current century is almost certainly the most hazardous that humans
have ever entered, and may be our last unless we can shift the attention
of our leaders and the global power they wield towards the solutions and act on them! Specific problems must be identified and understood,
but squishing many into Table 1 makes extra room to identify more
tools and techniques from among the solutions.
.
Collaborating author: Morgan Pollard, Australia
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Table 1:
Problems …
War
Conflict
Poverty
Greed
An industrialised form of violent mass organised acquisition of power
Land, money & resources the real reason (religion/culture often just an excuse)
Inequality causes conflict, suffering, environmental & psychological damage
Lust for kinds of power, such as money, tends to corrupt moral concerns
Over-Population
Over-Production
Over-Consumption
Over-Development
First 200,000 years to 0CE: 0.2 billion; 1850 1 bill; 1960 3 bill; 1999 6 billion
Economic system geared to constant growth, ready to supply any demand
Cultural system constantly encouraging desire, consumerism & materialism
Wealthy nations wasting limited resources at the expense of poor nations
Habitat Destruction
Habitat Degradation
Fragmentation
Ecosystem Collapse
Land-clearing for agriculture, grazing, forestry, mining, urban sprawl etc
Decline in ecological function, integrity, fertility, biodiversity, aesthetics etc
Isolated fragments of habitat become ecologically disconnected & vulnerable
Dramatic restructuring of communities due to key extinctions or changes
Deforestation
Desertification
River Decline
Overfishing
Clearing or burning of forests & rainforest for timber or other land-use
Previously productive land becoming infertile, arid or saline (salty)
Turbidity (muddiness), eutrophication (algal blooms), eco-disruption (dams)
Most fisheries have been shown to be harvested beyond sustainable limits
Pollution
Climate Change
Ozone Depletion
Coral Bleaching
Pesticides, fertilisers, sewage, petrochemical smog, acid rain, landfill wastes
Global warming, Greenhouse Effect, El Nino, rising temperature & sea levels
Loss of the atmospheric layer which protects life from harmful UV radiation
Impending large-scale death of the second most biodiverse ecosystem
Pest Species
Disease Epidemics
Food Supply
Water Supply
Natives displaced by introduced species (predation, weeds, hybridisation etc)
Evolution of new diseases, epidemics (extensive), pandemics (global)
Preventable hunger/disease kills about 40 million people/year (~100,000/day!)
Fresh water crises, waterborne disease, drought, diversion from ecosystems
Nuclear Legacy
Resource Decline
Loss of Biodiversity
Extinction
Nuclear waste remains toxic thousands of years longer than storage methods
Non-renewable depletion, slow transfer to renewable resources & energy
Ecosystems, habitats, species and local populations lost to extinction
Conservative estimate (Wilson) of 74 species lost forever each new morning
Apathy
Ignorance
Unhappiness
Unease
I don’t want to know either. Don’t care.
The unknown & uncertain. What you don’t know can’t hurt you… or can it?
Unrealistic expectations, rising rates of depression, anxiety & youth suicide
Trying to be 'normal' in a prevailing climate of fear and paradox
Q1.
Which do you think are the most urgent environmental problems in the
world today, and what are their main causes?
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B4.2. Environmental Science
Environmental Science is the study and implementation of systems, methods and
tools for predicting, analysing, solving and preventing large-scale ecological and
social problems.
Environment is …
a) influences and conditions external to the genes;
b) the physical surroundings of a living organism;
c) natural ecosystems which surround humans;
d) the total biophysical world including humans and our systems;
e) the total biophysical world and its connected sphere of knowledge and information;
f) all of the above, including emotion, behaviour, culture and consciousness of life.
Q2.
Which of the above definitions of 'Environment' do you think is most
useful?
Are there benefits to looking at the answer in different ways?
Science is . . .
Science is a rational method for discovering whether the behaviour of the world conforms to
certain theoretical ideas. The scientific method begins with a theory or hypothesis, which
proposes some solution to a specific question or problem, and then uses logical analysis and
systematic measurement to find evidence in the form of data to either falsify or help support
the hypothesis. The experiment is a series of controlled observations which can be quantified
and replicated. Further scientific principles include objectivity (a value-neutral position),
reductionism (analysis of the parts), simplicity (elegance), parsimony (minimised assumptions),
quantification (statistical measurement), testability, predictive and explanatory power, logical
consistency, and (usually) general agreement with existing knowledge. Even after all this, an
exposed new theory must still survive critical inspection of its methods, results and assumptions
- by a scientific community pervasively in a sceptical and analytical mood.
Ideas that are open to all these tests and survive them are more likely to be true.
Q3.
Should scientific information be the major driver of environmental
decisions over competing short-term political or economic objectives?
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B4.3. Environmental Science Solutions: tools and techniques
Tools and Techniques #1: Measurement Statistics ensure that data are quantified for
interpretation, a fundamental requirement of science. Data by themselves (numbers, raw facts)
are meaningless until they can be organised into information (patterns, statistics) which can be
graphed and analysed. Statistics may be either descriptive or inferential (inference is the
assumption that measures of a sample set can be extrapolated to the whole set). Precision is how
closely the measurement is made, and accuracy refers to how correctly it is made. Examples of
basic descriptive statistics are measures of central tendency (estimating the middle of data)
including mean (average), median and mode, and measures of dispersion (estimating the spread
of data) including variance, standard error, standard deviation and range. Don’t worry, so long as
you know the basic statistical principles of what you’re trying to find in data and how the data
are arranged, a computer can do the hard maths for you!
Tools and Techniques #2: Models are simplified representations of the real-world systems of
the environment. They make things clearer by cutting away the non-relevant parts to better
illustrate fundamental structures, functions, processes and connections. These things are
represented by specific icons representing inputs, outputs, material flows, options, decisions etc.
A map is a model of the landscape, a graph is a scientific model, and an engineer’s blueprint is a
technological model. Models are powerful tools and can be used to describe, explain, predict,
prescribe or evaluate. The problem to watch out for with
models is in the assumptions needed to reduce their
complexity, where important parts can be left out – for example
economic models which don’t include environmental impacts.
Many of the tools and techniques on following pages are types
of model.
Tools and Techniques #3: Indicators are the broadly
representative and easily monitored measures of the
environment used to imply additional information about the
system as a whole. For example, the abundance of an indicator
species can be measured as a signal of the health of the whole ecosystem. A variety of
environmental indicators should be used to plot comparisons between locations and across time,
including physical, chemical, biological, social and economic indicators.
Tools and Techniques #4: Index refers to a measure made from the combination of many
different variables, creating a much broader type of indicator. For example, the United Nations
Development Programme publishes indications of the progress of nations called the “Human
Freedom Index” and the “Human Development Index”.
Q4.
How do data, information, theory and knowledge differ from each other?
How do we differentiate facts from opinions?
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Tools and Techniques #5: Problem-solving models (e.g. Figure 1b) identify stages in the
process of defining, analysing and solving a specific problem. You must identify the goal or
desired objective, identify obstacles to progress towards the objective, formulate options or
alternative courses of action, choose between them, and plan actions to implement the decision.
Tools and Techniques #6: Decision-Making models (e.g. Figure 1a) are part of the
problem-solving process and help you to decide between a number of alternative courses of
action (including the “no action” option). Simple decisions with a single goal can be dealt with
using a ‘decision tree’ which identifies stages of the process and the risks associated with
different options. Harder decisions may require ‘multi-criteria decision analysis’. The process of
making a decision usually requires optimisation, or calculating the overall best and safest
(optimal) alternative.
Tools and Techniques #7: Expert Systems are decision support software which mimics the
reasoning of a human expert. They consist of a set of logical rules about systems behaviour,
combined with the input of expertise from a particular domain of knowledge. Expert systems are
a practical application of artificial intelligence.
Tools and Techniques #8: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a systematic
process to assess the consequences of any major infrastructure development. First developed in
the 1970s by the US Geological Survey (see Leopold matrix, Figure 1a), it has become widely
used and compulsory by regulation in many countries. An EIA typically includes an initial
scoping study to identify boundaries of concern, descriptions of the proposed development,
predictions of the magnitude and importance of probable environmental impacts, comparison of
alternatives, and suggested mitigation measures. Public consultation is required throughout the
process, and the final report is called an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) which must
include a non-technical summary and recommendations. Environmental monitoring is
important, beforehand to know the environmental baseline, and afterwards to audit outcomes and
inform future EIA.
Tools and Techniques #9: Social Impact Assessment (SIA) is a systematic process along
the same lines as Environmental Impact Assessment, but focusing on the consequences to
society, culture, community and wellbeing.
Tools and Techniques #10: Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) also uses
similar principles to Environmental Impact Assessment, but focusing on alternative policies,
plans or programmes at an earlier, more strategic phase of development.
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Figure 1: Historical Models of Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Processes
a) Small sample of original Leopold Matrix used for Environmental Impact Assessment; proposed
actions which may cause impact tabulated against existing characteristics of the environment. (US
Geological Survey 1971)
b) (overlaid) Jackson, Keith F. (1975) The Art of Problem Solving
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Tools and Techniques #11: Life-cycle Assessment (LCA) analyses material and energy
flows by following the complete lifecycle of a product through the processes of resource
extraction, transport, manufacturing, marketing, consumption and disposal.
Tools and Techniques #12: Pressure / State / Response Models follow the causal
relationship from pressures on the environment (e.g. economic demands, energy use, fisheries,
industrial developments), through the state or condition of the environment (e.g. impacts upon
atmosphere, water, biodiversity, ecology, heritage and human settlements), to the responses
(institutional, legislative and economic instruments, environmental management practices etc.).
Pressure/State/Response models are required for OECD member countries to inform national
State of the Environment (SoE) reporting.
Tools and Techniques #13: Before/After Control/Impact (BACI) Studies are used for
definitive experimental proof beyond reasonable doubt that an environmental impact has
occurred as the result of some sort of development. Monitoring of the site both before and after
the development process identifies the impacts, and simultaneous monitoring of one or more
closely similar non-impacted control sites demonstrates that the resulting changes only occurred
at the developed site.
Tools
and
Techniques
#14:
Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) are the use of computerised
overlay maps, often from satellite remote
sensing, to combine social and/or
environmental data sets. The resulting
composite maps are useful to find new
patterns of information and optimise
strategic decision-making.
Techniques #15: Risk
Assessment is a systematic method for
estimating and analysing the probability,
potential frequency, range, severity and
social acceptability of hazards and other adverse consequences.
Tools
and
Tools and Techniques #16: Cost-Benefit Analysis (often called benefit-cost analysis in the
US) is systematic assessment of the advantages/benefits and disadvantages/costs of any decision,
so as to obtain the greatest net social benefit (i.e. benefits minus costs significantly greater than
zero). Problems with cost-benefit analysis arise when it (too commonly) ignores non-monetary
values, and secondly when it only measures benefits to a particular small group (e.g. corporate
shareholders) rather than true social and ecological benefits.
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A Cross-Cultural Introduction to Bioethics
Tools and Techniques #17: Systems Analysis is the use of information technology to
discover the nature and requirements of systems. Systems engineering is the creation of new
arrangements. Today typically used in software design and business management, systems
analysis should also play an increased role in the environmental sciences.
Tools and Techniques #18: Software Engineering and new Internet architectures, which can
be based around environmental or democratic principles, have the potential to make a significant
impact on human activity and the information-gathering practices of future researchers from
anywhere in the world.
Tools and Techniques #19: Best Practice refers to knowing about and using current
advances in environmental management or technology, and incorporation of “Best Available
Information”. Regulatory approaches are called in the US “Best Available Control Technology”,
and in the UK “Best Practicable Means” or “Best Available Technology Not Entailing Excessive
Cost”.
Tools and Techniques #20: Principles of Bioethics and Sustainability should be the
central guidelines and objectives for any new models or management tools you may create if you
perhaps decide to choose a career in environmental science or in environmental economics.
Student Activity
Use the basic principles of decision-making used in EIA (similar to Figure 1a) to solve your own
problem in any area of interest (e.g. some major life decision).
1) list alternative courses of action (options) as columns (e.g. career choices).
2) list aspects of wellbeing (elements) as
rows (e.g. health and happiness of self
and others).
3) estimate the importance of each
element from 0 (not important) to 10
(most important) [x, y and z in figure].
4) in the upper-left corner of each
intersecting square of the matrix,
estimate the magnitude of impact (of
each option on each element) between
-10 (worst negative impact) and +10
(best positive impact) [a, b and c in
figure].
5), multiply each importance estimate by
the magnitude estimate and enter these
scores into the lower-right corner of
each square [xa, yb and zc in figure].
6) Add up these lower-right scores to
determine the total for each option. Which option does the matrix say is best?
7) Does the answer 'feel right' according to your original instincts?
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B5. Environmental Economics
Chapter objectives
Economics is the measurement of wealth and well-being.
This chapter aims to:
1. Prioritise environmental problems and their causes.
2. Illustrate links between economics and ecology.
3. Describe ecological limits and social justice.
4. Characterise components of wellbeing.
5. Discuss the ethics of environmental economics.
B5.1. The Big Problem.
We currently seem to be experiencing a human-driven mass extinction event. Human activity
has now reached a level of collective impact often matching or exceeding that of some natural
global biogeographical processes which shape and organise ecosystems and their critical
ecological life-support services. Many of the systems we have created (for example economic,
political or institutional systems), once-removed from individual human control, are having a
devastating impact upon the global abundance and distribution of life. Habitat destruction,
ecosystem fragmentation, introduced species, pollution, global warming… and at the same time
squandering scarce resources on weapons of war (destruction) and dubious entertainments
(distraction). This is a source of depression for permanent loss of biodiversity, and a cause for
anxiety over our human future. Ecosystems and biodiversity function like organs of the global
body to maintain stable planetary conditions for life. Usually taken for granted, ecosystem
services are provided free by ecosystems, but end up costing heavily in life and money if
damaged. As extinction progressively degrades or destroys links and nodes of ecological
systems, critical thresholds may be reached whereby large-scale properties of the global system
may switch to a different and unfavourable stable state. It's not guaranteed that the majority of
humans will be able to adapt to unexpected non-linear dynamics in large-scale systems upon
which we depend.
It seems pertinent to address the question of major causes as soon as possible. By its own
definition, priority of objectives is of the utmost importance in human activity.
.
Collaborating author: Morgan Pollard, Australia
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Historically, immediate reasons (proximate causes) of widespread extinctions include:
Proximate cause #1: most importantly, habitat destruction, such as the clearing of land to make
way for human dominated environments, particularly agriculture or grazing, or as a result of
large dams, logging operations, settlements etc.
Proximate cause #2: habitat fragmentation into isolated segments or habitat 'islands' vulnerable
to edge effects, and preventing genetic exchange and migration, for example the migration of
ecosystems towards the poles to adapt to global warming.
Proximate cause #3: introduced species which displace native species. For example, much of
Australia's high extinction rate has been caused by introduced species out-competing (e.g.
rabbits), preying upon (e.g. foxes), poisoning (e.g. cane toads), or replacing (e.g. crops, sheep,
cattle) the existing native species or their habitats.
Proximate cause #4: over-fishing / hunting / harvesting, although it’s theoretically possible to
manage these at sustainable levels since they harvest renewable resources.
A news flash for the 'big problem' might sound something like:
"Mass extinction by habitat destruction threatens human survival"
There must be underlying reasons behind the immediate problems so far identified. In modern
times the fundamental underlying reasons (ultimate causes) include:
Ultimate cause #1: Overpopulation. When were your grandparents born? Not very long ago in
the 200,000-year history of human evolution. Yet as recently as 1960 the human population had
only just reached 3 billion. Since then, with an expansion of exponential proportions, it suddenly
rose to well over 6 billion (Figure 1), possibly to double again over the current century before it
is expected to stabilise. Potential costs to the Earth’s ecology and the resulting future human
conflict are unknown. Also
uncertain is whether future
technology can protect humans
from the fate typical of other
species whose populations outgrow
their resource-base. Fortunately
however, human fertility rates have
been slowing, especially in
developed
economies
where
children often cost more than they
contribute. Better access to
women's
rights,
education,
contraception, and family planning
are very important especially in
developing nations.
Q1. What happens when a population outgrows its habitat or resources?
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B5.2. Environmental Economics
Further fundamental or ultimate causes are economic factors, resulting from models and systems
we created and have attempted to press upon the living systems of the world.
Ultimate cause #2: Over-production
Ultimate cause #3: Over-consumption
Ultimate cause #4: Over-development
In this view, the newspaper headline might read:
"Non-living systems threaten global living systems"
Why? Because the economic processes of production (supply of goods and services by firms),
consumption (demand for use of goods and services), and development (growth/expansion of
goods and services), are ultimately linked to ecology and are largely sourced from the
environment and the labour of human society. Figure 2 illustrates the big-picture interactions,
noting how the terminologies differ between the subjects of environmental science and
economics. The economy is an open system reliant on three basic functions: a) supply of
resources, b) assimilation of wastes, and c) provision of life-support and natural services
(including spiritual). Mainstream economics, as widely practiced today, focuses almost
exclusively within the boundaries of the upper section of Figure 2. In economics-speak, the
non-monetary components in the lower section are known by the obscure but telling term
‘externalities’. Thus environmental losses, withdrawn from a parallel ‘living bank account’, are
relegated into the background and rarely considered as costs in business policy and
profit-calculations.
Q2. Identify and discuss links and flows between economy and environment.
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B5.3. Putting economics in its place
It’s useful to know that the prefix ‘Eco-’ comes from the Greek root ‘oikos’, meaning ‘house’ or
‘home’. Therefore Eco-logy means the science of the home (because ‘-logy’ means ‘the study
of’, from ‘logos’ or ‘word’), and Eco-nomics means the management of the home (‘-nemein’ is
‘to manage’). The paradox is that our global home is currently being managed according to
measurements and models which are basically ignoring the science of the home. The biological
science of ecology, dealing with the distribution, abundance and interactions of Earth’s living
systems including humans, should logically be (more to the point, must logically become) the
central focus and driving force commanding the economy.
"Economic models and measurement focus not ecologically rational"
We must accept that economics, measurement of the distribution, abundance and interactions of
money, is only a means to an end, not an end in itself. Economics, as a subset of the many
non-monetary social and ecological interactions going on among and around us, is simply a
means to the higher ends of widespread ecological and human wellbeing, happiness, fulfilment,
satisfaction, contentment and overall spiritual/moral ease with ourselves and our environment.
Unfortunately,
the
economy
is
growing
too
big
for
its
boots.
The
production-consumption-development cycle, driven by population growth and economic growth,
is now reaching or over-reaching global social and ecological limits and critical thresholds.
Rather than market efficiency and economic incentives, explained in detail and promoted by
mainstream media and news sources, what’s really required is non-consumerism, and
dematerialization, an unnecessarily unwieldy term which means the use of much less materials
in production and development. In recently accepted models (Figure 3), clearly the economic
sphere cannot continue to grow indefinitely without crowding out the social and ecological
spheres, bounded by the limited size of the Earth.
"What economics calls ‘externalities’ turn out to be most important parts"
Figure 3: Putting Economics in its Place
Sources: (left) John Peet 1995; (right) Ian Lowe 1998
Q3. Discuss ends and means in relation to economics.
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B5.4. Limits ignored
There’s not really much excuse for our economic and political leaders to claim ignorance of
these things, as there’s been no shortage of classic philosophical warnings about limits. Thomas
Malthus warned of absolute limits to population size in Essay on the Principle of Population
(1798). Ricardo warned of relative scarcity, or relative limits to growth in Principles of Political
Economy and Taxation (1817). J.S. Mill in Principles of Political Economy (1857) expected the
endpoint of an economy to be a desirable 'stationary state' (in modern economic terms a constant
capital stock) in which there would be time for spiritual, artistic and educational pursuits.
Karl Marx talked about social limits to growth and the rights of workers in Capital (1867).
Kenneth Boulding introduced the concept of 'Spaceship Earth' versus 'cowboy economy' in The
Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth (1966). Paul and Ann Ehrlich foresaw catastrophic
future consequences in Population Bomb (1968). Garrett Hardin warned of the depletion of
open-access resources due to the self-interested actions of too many competitors for a common
stock in The Tragedy of the Commons (1968). Daly (1973) promoted a no-growth or
steady-state economy in which optimum and maximum size of the economy within the greater
system are taken into consideration (the ‘scale issue’). Meadows et al. wrote for the Club of
Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind: Limits to Growth (1972), which has been
followed up by Beyond the Limits (1992) and Limits to Growth – 30 year Update (2005).
These concepts have often been met with denial, and sometimes wrongly rejected due to
criticisms of the timing of specific predictions rather than of fundamental premises. Ecological
limits are undeniable, and are measured in ecology by the symbol K for carrying capacity, or
the maximum population density an area can sustain without causing lasting degradation. There
are limits of acceptable change. The area of land required to compensate our resource
consumption is known as our ecological footprint. If all people were to live the lifestyle enjoyed
by the wealthiest nations, our collective ecological footprint would be more than three times the
Earth's surface.
Our activities have a certain forward momentum, and the resulting impacts may be positive or
negative, primary (direct) or secondary (flow-on effects), may be sudden (e.g. land clearing),
gradual (e.g. land degradation), or delayed (e.g. climate change), may produce feedback, act in
combination (additive or multiplicative), and may be measurable or completely unknown.
Attempts have been made to estimate the total environmental impact of human activity on the
Earth, for example:
Total impact = PF (Population x Impact per capita)
Ecological impact = PCT
(Population x Consumption/affluence x
Technological efficiency)
Impact damage = population x economic intensity x resource intensity x
environmental pressure on the resource x
susceptibility of the environment
Impact = PLOT (Population x
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B5.5. Opportunities lost
Economics can been divided into two major goals: efficiency and equity. Our models are very
good at efficiency, which refers to maximising the amount of work done/money made (benefits),
compared to the energy supplied/money spent (costs). Adam Smith’s An Inquiry Into the Nature
and the Wealth of Nations (1776) was the defining work on classical economic efficiency,
introducing the guidance of the ‘invisible hand of the market’. John Maynard Keynes
concentrated on social employment efficiency, and Joseph Schumpeter on adaptive efficiency
with investment in technology and creativity.
In practice, our economic models were formulated around the market efficiency objective,
completely overshadowing the more ethically-important social equity objective (fairness in the
distribution of wealth and equality of opportunity). Classic philosophers on the equity
component of economics include Jeremy Bentham (1781) who introduced the ethical philosophy
of Utilitarianism, further developed by James Mill and then his son J.S. Mill in Utilitarianism
(1863), and commonly known as the 'happiness principle' or 'the greatest good for the greatest
number' (economists use utility to mean wellbeing).
Marshall McLuhan’s global village concept (1970s) highlighted wealth disparities in a
comprehensible way using the metaphor of a local neighbourhood. About half of the world
village is in relative or extreme poverty, earning only a few dollars a day, without access to clean
drinking water, modern healthcare, contraception, immunization or security. Roughly, over 80%
of the world’s wealth is wrapped up by less than 20% of its people. John Rawls in A Theory of
Justice (1971) proposes that a just world would be the one we would organise such that we’d
feel okay to be born randomly anywhere in it. This refers to social (distributive) justice rather
than simply legal (retributive) justice. The other justice debate is whether to distribute wealth
according to right, merit or need – but any form of justice would surely do compared to the
status quo of distribution by non-living market forces. A small step towards addressing the equity
problem would be the application of ‘fair trade’ rules in preference to ‘free trade’.
Another relatively ignored and euphemistic economics term is ‘opportunity cost’, sometimes
also called ‘external costs’. This refers to the fact that if you do one thing with scarce money,
time and resources, there’s a cost in lost opportunities towards other things you could have done
instead. A brief glance at where the bulk of the world’s money is spent, shows that most often the
opportunity costs are far more ethically significant than the wasteful spending choices of wealthy
people and nations. Poverty, hunger, preventable disease and war have killed at least tens of
thousands of children and adults every time you wake up in the morning – perhaps 40 million per
year, which is around one hundred thousand preventable deaths every day.
Q 4: [Source of idea: Peter Unger (1996) & Peter Singer (2002) One World: the Ethics of Globalisation]
a) Imagine you saw that a runaway train was definitely about to kill a child playing in the
railway tunnel. Would you pull a switch to divert the train to a different track, even if it
meant the train would then smash up your new car parked there?
b) Consider that donations of as little as US$200 can pay for enough food & medicine (including
administration) to save a child’s life through UNICEF or other charity organisations. Are
there valid reasons to suppose any of us are in a different moral situation to the dilemma
posed in a) above?
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B5.6. Local children on the global scrapheap
Big global problems are comprised of a mosaic of lots of small local problems. The
over-developed countries (self-defined as the ‘first world’) have used global financial
mechanisms to take human and natural resources from under-developed (‘third world’) nations.
Those too poor to provide prospects for profit have typically been ignored, along with other
externalities like pollution. Essential human needs in the modern world include at least
nutritious food, clean water, warm clothes and shelter, healthcare, education, security and access
to information and opportunity. Without food on the plate, one can’t much afford to consider
ethical and environmental concerns. Desperation and resentment resulting from poverty also
make it a security issue and root cause of war and terrorism. Nevertheless, the United Nations
finds it hard to extract just the recommended 0.7% foreign aid from wealthy nations towards the
needs of the desperately poor. Philosophers of ethics suggest at least 10% of income should be
donated.
"Ignorance of ‘opportunity cost’ kills tens of thousands a day"
Figure 4: Barefoot Timorese Children Consigned to the Scrap Heap [photos: M. Pollard]
Their best available opportunity is our discarded rubbish.
Q5.
What makes us all the same? Do children everywhere have the same
ability to feel love, happiness, depression and fear?
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The very name of the world’s dominant economic ideology gives a hint as to its fundamental
flaw. ‘Capital’ refers to forms of money, and ideology (‘-ism’) implies the elevation of something
in the mind to the exclusion of all competing considerations. Therefore, power has been
enthralled by the measurement of a surrogate or analogue of itself, called capital (money). Power
is concentrated at the middle-scale, the scale relevant to nations and corporations, which explains
why the global scale and the local scale tend to pay for, or at least miss out on, its benefits. This
marginalisation of ethics in the implementation of business is known as economic ‘realism’.
Should common people be driven according to financial rules constructed only by the wealthy?
The study of power-relations is hardly soothing to the psychology of the faint-hearted, but cannot
just be left to the cold-hearted. Power caters to itself. To this end, economics, although called the
‘dismal science’, is a master discipline of measurement (every possible cent). This skill can be
used to its fullest capacity by extending the scope of measurement in economics – to focus
instead on ecological health, human wellbeing, and the creation of ethical outcomes (Tables 1 &
2). We must develop and implement new global financial and socioeconomic models able to
synchronize the powerful driving forces of market incentives with the achievement of bioethical
outcomes. If global economic models were correctly aligned to the cause of wellbeing, their
collective power (a system which took us to the moon) would have been able to eliminate
poverty long ago.
Q6. Why do you think economics has for so long been called ‘the dismal
science’? How could we make it more cheerful? Consider economics a
puzzle and a challenge to save species and lives.
“Unfortunately many people assume that we can solve the big global problems facing us if
we recycle our garbage, develop energy efficient devices and better pollution control etc.,
while we retain an economy that continues to be driven by market forces, the profit motive
and growth. This is a totally mistaken assumption. There is no possibility whatsoever of
achieving a sustainable society while we have anything like the present economic system.
Our present economy is the essential cause of our serious global problems and these
problems can only rapidly worsen so long as we retain this economy. The problems are
primarily due to over-production, over-consumption and over-development and it is our
economic system which inevitably leads to these outcomes.” p.74, and “…we have an
economy that constantly has to increase levels of production and consumption. We must
change to a very different economy, one which makes it possible to produce only as much as
we need for a high quality of life, and to implement ways of reducing resource use,
production, work, investment, trade and living standards as conventionally defined. (This
does not imply any reduction in technical innovation, standards, cultural or scientific
achievement or the quality of life.)” p.79-80
Ted Trainer (1995) The Conserver Society: Alternatives for Sustainability.
“Dost thou not know, my son, with what little wisdom the world is governed?”
Count Oxenstierna (letter to his son 1648)
Q7. Why on Earth would our most commonly-used prescriptive models focus on
growth and efficiency, at the cost of trampling ecological limits and ethical
principles of equity and social justice?
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Table 1: Measures of National Progress and Development
Gross National Product (GNP) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – overused
annual indicators based only on economic measures, they do not measure sustainable
development or wellbeing because they include any monetary activity even if
environmentally destructive or non-sustainable.
Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) – an economic measure comparable to the GNP,
but including estimates of 24 elements of social wellbeing like income distribution,
leisure time, crime rate, environmental damage and volunteer work. This index is
declining in many Western (over-developed) countries.
Human Development Index – United Nations Development Programme quality of
life indicator which combines economic output, life expectancy, literacy rate and
education enrolment.
Human Freedom Index – United Nations Development Programme index of 40
rights and freedoms, like freedom of speech, gender equality, homosexual rights and
freedom from torture.
Index of Social Health – developed by the Fordham Institute, this index includes
measures such as infant mortality, teenage suicide, homicides, unemployment, health
access and child poverty.
State of the Environment (SoE) Reporting – environmental reviews used to monitor
the progress of environmental protection in OECD countries.
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Economic development of course alleviates the suffering of poverty, conflict and crime; and
increases human wellbeing, family planning, and the ‘luxury’ of environmental protection. These
are vitally important paths for those with less. Economic growth and globalisation (opening up to
the world economy) are certainly necessary to relieve the suffering of the poorest people and
under-developed countries. But for those with more, there is new scientific evidence that wealth
increases happiness only to a point (a social and ecological limit). The health and wellbeing of
current wealthy generations is hardly helped by the constant fuelling of material desires by
advertising, trying to keep up with the neighbour, working too hard in stressful occupations, no
time to spend on leisure or family, over-consumption of food, morally dubious goods and
services, or subconscious feelings of guilt. The so-called ‘trickle-down effect’, where wealth is
said to trickle down from rich to poor, is actually a cleverly inverted metaphor – in free market
capitalism money flows towards existing money like water down a valley. If there were fairer
globalisation of health, wealth and education rather than just capital, people would place more
trust in the process. Real globalisation of ‘free’ trade would include the free movement of capital,
production, consumption and labour (e.g. the European model). It would make policy based not
on measures of money, but of happiness (e.g. in Bhutan).
The ethical and sustainable corporation works to enhance the workplace, environment and
society. This is known as Corporate Social Responsibility and is measured by triple bottom
line accounting (the addition of social outcomes and environmental impacts to the traditional
‘bottom line’ of profits). Ethical investments will have nothing to do with guns, gambling,
tobacco, uranium or habitat destruction. But moral argument is only one tool for protecting the
environment; other possibly more powerful/effective tools may be economic arguments.
Old-style business, which treats workers, community and environment like resources to be
exploited, will eventually suffer the consequences of public cynicism and alienation,
environmental activism, and industrial relations conflict. New-style companies, driven not by
profits but by vision and principle, will increase their effectiveness and staying-power by
inspiring worker and public satisfaction, autonomy, innovation and teamwork towards new
niches and green markets opened up by progress towards our sustainable future. Ecological
networks can be emulated in economic models and organisational architectures, and efficient use
and recycling of energy and materials can cut costs. Regulatory ‘command and control’ measures
can be supplemented with market-based economic incentives such as environmental valuation,
green labelling, subsidies, permits, carbon credits and pollution taxes. Environmental valuation
has traditionally been based around use (‘instrumental value’), but nature is increasingly
recognised as having additional non-use values such as the ‘option value’ of potential future use,
‘bequest value’ to future generations, ‘existence value’ and ultimately ‘intrinsic value’.
Ecological economics is a sub-discipline of environmental economics, and ecologism is a new
sub-discipline of environmentalism. These two branches of their respective fields reflect
rejection of the assumption that problems can be solved from within the constraints of the current
dominant paradigm, and perceive solutions from an ecocentric perspective reaching beyond
current debates.
Q8.
Do you think animals, plants and ecosystems have intrinsic value, or is the
value of nature only in its utility to humans?
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Solutions are at hand. Much information is finally coming out which outlines a humane basis for
our economic future. Recent popular examples include Paul Hawken’s Ecology of Commerce
(1993) and Natural Capitalism (1999), Weizsacker Lovins’ Factor Four: Doubling Wealth,
Halving Resource Use (1998), Charles Handy’s The Hungry Spirit (1998), Suzuki & Dressel’s
Good News for a Change (2002), Clive Hamilton’s Growth Fetish (2003), Doug Cocks’ Deep
Futures (2003), George Monbiot’s Age of Consent (2003), John Cavanagh & Jerry Mander’s
Alternatives to Economic Globalization (2004), Jeffrey Sachs’ The End of Poverty (2005), and
just about any book with “Sustainability” in its title.
With all these solutions proposed by ethical philosophers, ecologists and environmental
economists for so long, why haven’t we solved, or even seriously addressed, the big problems
yet? There seems a significant gap between the theory and the practice. A new contender for the
crown of ‘biggest problem’ is one of psychology. How will the greedy be weaned off their
addiction? How do we deal with people’s desires, motivations, beliefs, fears of change? One
answer is ‘soft power’, the persuasive power of moral authority and ethically superior
value-systems. The successful marketing of important ideas involves putting them into a form
which combines a sound philosophical and scientific basis with simplicity, clarity, accessibility,
usefulness, attractiveness and fun.
A message to current and future leaders: would you want to be frowned upon by our wiser future
descendants as one of the old-style leaders, or are you a true leader for the history books? What
have some of our true leaders said about economic issues? Jesus said that it is easier for a camel
to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to get into heaven. Buddha said that the
path to contentment does not lie in material things. Mohammed emphasized the virtue of charity,
as one of the five pillars of Islam. Hospitality and generosity are surely one of the key solutions
to social disorder, crime and conflict. Gandhi said there is enough for all of our needs, but not for
all of our wants. And finally John Lennon said give peace a chance.
[East Timor photograph: M. Pollard]
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B6. Sustainable Development
Chapter objectives
Sustainable Development is about the survival and
wellbeing of current and future generations of life.
This chapter aims to introduce:
1. Sustainability and sustainable development.
2. The political use of relevant terms.
3. Integration of economy, society, culture and ecology.
4. Uncertainty and the precautionary principle.
5. Principles of sustainable management.
The Earth from Space
Photos of the Earth as a single, fragile entity
in inhospitable space have highlighted the
concept of limits and inspired the search for
human unity and global sustainability.
(NASA Image)
B6.1. The Biggest Problem in the World.
Sustainable Development and Sustainability deal with quite simply the LARGEST and
most extreme problem ever faced by humanity.
What will be the future for our species? What must we do to ensure our long-term survival?
Can we control our collective destiny as inhabitants of this earth? A few leading scientists
have predicted double-digit percentages for the likelihood of human extinction by the end of
this century. You can always find someone with some opinion or other. But hang on a
second… Do they know what they’re talking about? If there’s even a remote chance they’re
right… shouldn’t we be a little more concerned??
“It may not be absurd hyperbole – indeed, it may not even be an overstatement – to assert that the
most crucial location in space and time (apart from the big bang itself) could be here and now. I think
the odds are no better than fifty-fifty that our present civilisation on Earth will survive to the end of the
present century without a serious setback.” Martin Rees (2003) Our Final Century p.7-8
What can we do? Everything!! Modern knowledge, freedoms and strong ethical convictions
can turn it around. A career in environmental science or human rights might help! But even
despite the ‘money’ temptation, careers in business, science, law and politics can deliver
environmental and social wellbeing, sustainable technologies and ethical value systems.
.
Collaborating author: Morgan Pollard, Australia
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B6.2. What About the Kids?
“Sustainable Development.
It’s an objective. It’s a concept, a symbol, a
slogan, a word-phrase, a process, an action, a pathway, a guideline, a desire, a motivation, a
mechanism, a measurement, an interpretation, a relationship, an interaction, an aim, a
method, a result, an outcome, as well as many other possible interpretations. It’s currently the
focus of the
United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005-2014.
It was first mentioned in: I.U.C.N. (1980) World Conservation Strategy: Living Resources
Conservation for Sustainable Development. I.U.C.N. (World Conservation Union), Gland,
Switzerland. The first widely recognized definition was in ‘The Brundtland Report’: World
Commission on Environment and Development (W.C.E.D.) (1987) Our Common Future.
Brundtland, Gro Harlem (editor), Oxford University Press:
“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.”
There’s a lot more to it, and people have been redefining it, deciding on its principles and
arguing over its goals ever since. This original aspect is still central, and has been shortened
to the phrase:
“Inter-generational Equity”
meaning equity between present people and future generations. Since equity means fair and
equal wealth, wellbeing, environment and opportunity, and since future generations are you,
kids, and your children and their kids… it can be simplified even further to:
"What about the kids?"
Q1.
Most recent definitions and principles of ‘Sustainable Development’
have also included Intra-generational Equity, or equitable distribution
within the current generation. Discuss some ethical and practical
differences between Inter-generational equity and Intra-generational
equity.
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B6.3. Slippery Terminology
‘Sustainable Development’ has been a slippery term
to pin down, and defining it has caused much heated
debate and controversy (see Table 1). But it isn’t
really all that confusing - if it’s not defined in a vague
or veiled way (like putting the emphasis on ‘economic’ sustainability).
To ‘sustain’ is to support, cause to continue, keep in existence, replenish, preferably
enhance, and at least maintain at a certain standard or level.
‘Sustainable’ (as well as meaning ‘able to be sustained’), refers to the level at which a
resource may be used, harvested or depleted such that it is able to regenerate or
replenish (sustain) itself indefinitely (e.g. the stock of a
fishery, timber yield in forestry, agricultural productivity,
etc).
‘Development’ is any activity or progress which increases the wellbeing of humans and the
environment. Too often it is accidentally or deliberately confused with concepts and growth
(particularly economic growth, including consumerism, commercialism and technocentrism).
But growth isn’t always development, which must include things like reduction of poverty
and increased quality of life, modernization, equity, health, democracy, freedom, fair trade
and conservation.
‘Sustainability’ is a measure of how well policy and management live up to
the principles and philosophies of sustainable development. Sustainability can
also be thought of as a wonderful imaginary place or
ultimate objective where all good requirements are met for
sustaining ecosystems and maintaining human wellbeing.
‘Sustainable development’ has most commonly been used in specific reference to the
sustainability of ecosystems. For example, the Australian government has incorporated the
term ‘ecologically sustainable development’ as an official aim of policy, although
environmental groups feel some principles are missing (see Table 2), and there’s still
a long way to go in practice! The environment is much more than ecology and
biodiversity. It also includes the human environment,
including social, cultural, economic, political and
informational components, all included in ‘environmentally
sustainable development’. Oh, and by the way, this is one of
the reasons why environmental science is such a fascinating career to choose - it
includes the big and the small, the concrete and the abstract, humans and nature - and it’s
never short of interesting and vitally important issues!
Despite all these inclusions, sustainable
development is a term still often abused and
misrepresented. It’s even been accused of being an ‘oxymoron’, a strange
word describing a self-contradictory phrase, where seemingly opposite
words combine to suddenly make sense.
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Q2.
Sustainable development is somewhat ambiguous - a fuzzy concept
which often means different things to different people. Is the term
‘Sustainable Development’ self-contradictory? Why and/or why not?
Do differing interpretations help it to become a more useful and
popular phrase, or do they make it less useful and practical?
Table 1: Landmarks and Defining Events
majority of human history - barbarism reigns
1948 - Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1970 - UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program
1972 - Club of Rome The Limits to Growth
1980 - IUCN World Conservation Strategy
1987 - WCED Brundtland Commission Our Common Future
1990 - Commonwealth of Australia Ecologically Sustainable Development Working Groups
1992 - UNCED Rio Earth Summit, and Agenda 21
1992 - United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development
1993 - Commission of the European Community Fifth Environmental Action Programme
1994 - IUCN / IIED Strategies for National Sustainable Development
1994 - United Nations Conference on Population & Development
1995 - United Nations Conference on Social Development
1996 - Earth Council Making Sustainability Work strategy
1996 - Earth Network for Sustainable Development website
1997 - Rio+5 Forum and Earth Summit+5 review
1997 - Kyoto Conference on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol
1999 - Seattle WTO Conference anti-globalization protest gathering
Millennium Earth Initiative
2000 - time to contemplate embarking into the 21st century
2000 - Earth Charter (revised after non-adoption at 1992 Rio Earth Summit)
2001 - United Nations Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
2001 - first annual World Social Forum (Another World Is Possible)
2002 - Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development
2002 - International Criminal Court
2005-2014 United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development
now - time to turn all this talk into action!
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Table 2: Summary of Ecologically Sustainable Development
adapted from: Ronnie Harding (1998) Environmental Decision-Making p. 27-29
ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Recommended by:
Principles and Objectives
Australian
Government
1. Integration of Economic and Environmental Goals in Policy
2. Inter-Generational Equity
3. Conservation of Biodiversity and Ecological Integrity
4. Recognising the Global Dimension (Integration)
5. Caution with Risk & Irreversibility (Precautionary Principle)
6. Appropriate Valuation of Environmental Assets
7. Efficiency
8. Economic Resilience (Capacity for Environment Protection)
9. International Competitiveness and External Balance
10. 1Community Participation
11. 1Constant Natural Capital and ‘Sustainable Income’
12. 1Qualitative Development
13. 1Limits on Natural Resource Use
14. 1Intra-Generational (Social) Equity
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Environment
Groups
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
An easy to comprehend example of sustainable development in action is sustainable fishing.
Sustainable yield refers to an uncertain level or threshold of harvesting at which a
population or resource will not be at risk of overall long-term decline. In sustainable fishing
we do not to try to maximise our catch (yield), but rather optimise it for sustainability
(‘optimum sustainable yield’) in accordance with a sustainable fishery management plan.
Boats in the commercial fishing fleet may be allocated fishery property rights, sharing
proportions of the annual quota (‘total allowable catch’), or
alternatively regulated by closing the fishery when total
allowable catch is reached. Fishing quotas may be
transferable, seasonal, area-specific, species-specific and/or
enforceable by law. Modern fishing gear is available which
avoids damage to unintended by-catch and the sea-bed
habitat. Individual recreational fishers also have bag-limits,
(quota), size limits, and gear restrictions. Protection of the
ecosystem and large-scale habitat is often even more
important than limiting exploitation of the stock. Regional
systems of Marine Parks (National Parks for the sea), such
as those managed by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
Authority in Australia, allocate areas for different or multiple
uses (e.g. commercial fishing, recreational fishing, tourism or
conservation zones). Marine protected areas, and also conservation of breeding and nursery
grounds such as coastal wetlands, reserve habitat space for fish populations to rejuvenate.
Sustainable fishing is more akin to farming than to hunting, as it ensures that new cohorts of
fish are helped to survive and grow for harvesting in following years.
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B6.4. Take a Seat for a Minute…
So, what is it we’re trying to sustain?
Sustainability
must
be
integrated,
meaning that it
should be broad
and all-inclusive.
That’s
why
Francesco
di
Castri came up
with
a
neat
metaphor: “The
Chair
of
Sustainable
Development”
[journal Nature &
Resources 31(3)]. A
metaphor is a
handy comparison
which
helps
memory
and
understanding,
and in this one the
chair has four connected ‘legs’ of
sustainability which must all be included in
sustainable
policy
and
management. If one leg is
over-emphasised,
(usually
the ‘economic leg’), then the
chair won’t be flat or
comfortable. Also, this is a
tall Renaissance-style chair,
because the Renaissance and
Enlightenment were periods
of Western history when
integrated thinking led to
some of the best discoveries.
The concern now, is that
education is too specialised and training only for a very
specific career may not be
equipping you with the
broad
multidisciplinary
knowledge we need to solve
inter-connected
global
problems.
Ecological Leg
Biodiversity
Ecosystems
Habitats
Endangered Species
Keystone Species
Pollution & Waste
Physical Processes
Natural Resources
Q3.
Economic Leg
Social Leg
Cultural Leg
Institutions
Infrastructure
Education
Legal System
Health & Medical
Politics/Democracy
Military Industries
Human Resources
Religion & Culture
Ethics & Behaviour
Desires/Motivations
Entertainments
Freedoms/Rights
Responsibilities
Family Values
Information/Media
Economic Growth
Natural Capital
Goods & Services
Corporate Practice
Employment
Quality of Life
Efficiency
Fair Trade/Equity
What difficulties and compromises do you think might arise in our
attempts to measure such factors for sustainability?
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B6.5. Precaution for uncertainty
Uncertainty
is a fact of life.
But one thing's for sure… Those causes cause these effects. These
effects affect those because… Act-contact-impact in fact… Unless
because of non-causal correlation of course… Oh dear... These
systems seem complex. That feedback sure is noisy… Impacts
interact. Processes produce probabilistic progress of properties… huh?
Actions cause impacts with interactions. Indicators illustrate. Contents
index complex sets and common context connects concepts… what?
Welcome to uncertainty, and yes I'm confused too. What did I do
with my network flow diagram? It’s something to do with that systems
theory. Emergent properties are part of complexity theory. Risk is
where the probabilities can be guessed at. A bit risky…
Indeterminacy is ‘I’m afraid I don’t know’. Oh no. Ignorance is
‘I don’t know what it is I don’t know’. Uh oh… Apathy is ‘I don’t
really care’. That’s the worst. And I don’t suppose chaos will interfere
this time – where’s my noodles…
Uncertainty is one of the reasons why many environmental management and sustainability
policies sometimes fail to live up to expectations. That can be dangerous, because of the risk
of irreversible damage to free but easily disrupted ecosystem services which provide critical
life-support functions. If we make mistakes providing for people, deaths can be the result. If
we make mistakes with ecology, well… you’ve heard the phrase ‘extinction is forever’.
These are just two examples of irreversible damage. Some ways to reduce uncertainty
include measurement, modelling and monitoring. These important methods make use of
environmental and social indicators, selected because they also convey information about the
bigger picture. But you can never totally get rid of uncertainty. That’s why they invented the
‘Precautionary Principle’
“Where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage,
lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason
for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation.
In the application of the precautionary principle, public and private decisions
should be guided by:
(i) careful evaluation to avoid, wherever practicable,
serious or irreversible damage to the environment, and
(ii) an assessment of the risk-weighted consequences of various options.”
(definition from Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment, Australia, 1992)
(see also p. 5)
Q4.
Can you find definitions for Risk, Uncertainty, Ignorance, and Apathy,
and identify the differences between them? Can you think of situations
where they contribute to an ethical problem?
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B6.6. Lean and Green
Sustainable planning and sustainable management are the practical applications of
sustainability to policies of government or business which affect society or the environment.
They involve using principles of sustainable development in problem-solving and
decision-making. In the spirit of the ‘Chair of Sustainable Development’ introduced earlier,
here’s a new memory-aid metaphor, based on the ‘Leaning Tower of Pisa’ in Italy, which also
uses concepts of balance and equilibrium. This model doesn’t show what is to be included in
sustainability, but hints at how to do it in planning, policy and management.
‘The Tower of PISA for Sustainable Management’
Precautionary
Integrated
Caution with risk and uncertainty, and avoidance
of serious or irreversible damage by using
predictive impact models and the Precautionary
Principle.
Inclusion of all aspects of sustainability (e.g.
political, social, cultural, economic, ecological),
with large spatial scale (whole habitats) and long
time scale.
“Be careful”
“Look at the big picture”
Strategic (Sustainable)
Adaptive
Strategic means well co-ordinated and goal
directed. In this case the goal is sustainability! (If
this context isn’t clear, ‘Sustainable’ can be used
in place of the term ‘Strategic’.)
“Have a strong ethical & scientific backbone”
Adaptive means responsive to changing
circumstances (the adaptive thinker can change
her or his mind on the basis of new information).
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Q5. This question may help you to start thinking a bit like a philosopher.
Can you come up with a new model or metaphor which helps to explain something
related to bioethics of interest to you? Simplify something abstract and hard
to understand by comparing it to something more concrete and well known.
If that’s a bit hard, maybe you can come up with a new -ism (-ism is a suffix
denoting a doctrine or ideology), or a new -ology (-logy is from the Greek
for ‘study’ and indicates the scientific study of something).
Describe and analyse your new metaphor, model, ideology or scientific discipline.
Does it have ethical dangers, weaknesses and benefits?
Activity 1: Write an Essay
The Internet is an amazing tool for information-gathering and communication.
Look
at
the
Internet
Resources
Directory
in
the
file
<www2.unescobkk.org/eubios/BetCD/Bet14sq.doc>. The web-sites are sorted
under the following headings:
‘Academic Literature’
‘Activism & Charities’
‘Agriculture’
‘Biotechnology’
‘Business’
‘Coastal & Marine’
‘Decision-Support’
‘Dictionaries’
‘Education’
‘Election’
‘Employment’
‘Encyclopaedias’
‘Environment’
‘Ethics’
‘Global Warming’
‘Internet Media’
‘Legal’
‘Libraries & Books’
‘Medical & Health’
‘Modelling’
‘Museums’
‘Sustainable Development’
‘Translation’
‘Web-search’
a) Can you write an essay or short answer which, somewhere, uses most or all of
these words?
b) What ideas or conclusions have emerged from this exercise about the
sustainability of:
(i) humanity as a whole?
(ii) your own life?
c) If you have a computer linked to the internet, visit some of the web-sites listed in
the directory.
Which ones did you choose and why? Are they interesting or useful?
Are there any drawbacks to this kind of research (e.g. do some of the sites no
longer exist)?
d) What has this exercise taught you about the power and future potential of
information tools like the Net?
Activity 2: Do the Sustainability crossword on a copy of the crossword on p.72.
The soft copy of the crossword file is
<www2.unescobkk.org/eubios/BetCD/Betcwd.doc> on the website.
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B7. Cars and the Ethics of Costs and Benefits
Chapter objectives.
While most people have used cars few have considered the
full economic, environmental and ethical impact of personal
automobiles.
This chapter has two important goals:
1. Encourage students to broaden their thinking about
ethical issues to look comprehensively at both direct and
indirect costs and benefits, and
2. Challenge students to critically reconsider one of the
most pervasive and hyped products of the modern era.
B7.1. Costs and benefits of car use for local transport
Q1. Do you want your own car?
In life, everything we make or do has costs, benefits, or often both (e.g. benefits to the
individuals and costs to society). Evolution by natural selection removes traits that have greater
costs than benefits. People have developed many behaviors and technologies. Just like biological
traits, these human behaviors and technologies have both costs and benefits. Self interest
demands that we use technologies and behave in ways that either individually or collectively
have greater benefits than costs. Evolution makes this choice for biological traits, with those
individuals and species having advantageous traits leaving more offspring. However, we do not
always make rational choices and some costs are difficult to see or unpleasant to look at. This
chapter challenges you to consider all the costs and benefits of personal car use for local travel.
During the past century, the car has drastically transformed both human life and the surface and
atmosphere of the Earth. The automobile has given people mobility, convenience, and
independence that could not even be dreamed of in earlier times. The automotive industry is
one of the dominant sectors of the largest industrial economies; it provides jobs, economic
power, and even military might. Most of the world's richest countries produce cars and all of
them rely on cars for a major proportion of transportation needs. Cars are seen as symbols of
wealth and status. Today, it seems that most people in the world either have cars or want them.
Cars are a mixed blessing. Along with the great benefits that cars provide come costs, many of
which are difficult to quantify or unpleasant to consider. In this chapter, challenge yourself to
quantify some of the costs and benefits of personal car use.
.
Collaborating author: Richard Weisburd, Japan/USA.
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B7.2. Calculate the costs and benefits
Worksheet I—Start by adding up the costs of car purchase and use; calculate how much you
would have to pay (or your family does pay) for each kilometer you or your family drive. If your
family has its own car, use your family's actual expenses for the calculations; if not, then do a
hypothetical analysis of what it would cost for your family to buy and use a car. Car dealers
should be happy to provide you with cost estimates for a car purchase; they might also be able to
help with estimates of the other required expenses like maintenance, insurance, and taxes. Below
is a sample calculation for Japan. If you have access to a computer, the internet, and a
spreadsheet program, you can download a sample Microsoft Excel spreadsheet from the Eubios
Ethics Institute at <http://www2.unescobkk.org/eubios/BET/bet6cal.xls> (or see on the Eubios
CD). A hard copy example is printed below.
This sample spreadsheet can be modified to fit your local situation and perform the calculations
for you. The costs should all be expressed on an annual basis; in your locality, the costs may
exclude some of the items in the spreadsheet and the table below or include others. In Japan, the
average car is used for only 7.3 years (ref. 1). The sample calculation for Japan, family sedan
with an 1.8 L engine and an automatic transmission. Including all taxes and fees that are paid for
the original purchase only, the price of this new car is 2,132,545 yen. The sample calculation
uses the car catalog specified fuel efficiency for 10/15 mode driving (a standard urban driving
sequence), but you can easily measure the fuel efficiency of a car yourself by filling the gas tank,
measuring the distance until the next refueling, and then recording how much gas is needed for
the refueling: divide distance traveled by fuel needed to refill the tank (km/L). The fuel
efficiency you measure will probably be less than the value listed in the car catalog. Worksheet I
shows the annual costs for using this car.
Example - Worksheet I
item
calculation
Purchase of 1800 cc family
sedan
2,132,545 Yen/7.3 years
Maintenance and parts, yen
Road tax, yen
Inspection (shaken), yen
Insurance, yen
Parking, yen
Total fixed costs, yen
Distance driven, km
Annual basis
292129
30,000
35,000
41407
80,267 (1)
60000
538803
10,000 (2)
Annual fixed cost, yen/km
538803 yen/10000 km
54
Fuel efficiency, km/L
Fuel price, yen/L
Fuel cost, yen/km
95 yen/L x (10000 km/16 km/L)
16
95
6
Total cost, yen/km
54 + 6 yen/km
60
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Q2. Can you think of some ways to reduce the costs or increase the benefits of
personal car use?
Q3. Do you still want to buy and use your own personal car?
Q4. Look at magazines, television and find images of fast cars. Is that an image
you would like to portray?
B7.3. How fast do you travel?
The primary benefit of owning and operating your own car is the freedom to travel quickly
wherever you want. Speed is distance divided by time. Most cars can be driven faster than 120
km/h; however, in urban conditions, the actual speed is far less than the maximum speed. If your
family has a car, then measure the distance and time taken for several typical local drives. The
speed for each trip will be much less than the maximum speed because the driver must stop at
red lights and stop signs, etc. Most cities and towns also have periods with heavy traffic; during
such rush hours, travel speed is low. For example, the average driving speed in Bangkok,
Thailand for all hours of the day and night is about 15 km/h. The average speeds of several
courses measured in morning, noon, and evening were 19.2 km/h in Tokyo and 34.3 km/h in
Tsukuba (3), a town about 60 km northeast of Tokyo. In fact, most drivers do not realize how low
the actual average speed of their local car trips is.
Worksheet II—Calculate the average speed of some drives in your town. Express your results in
units of km/h. Then divide this result into 1 to get hours/km traveled; for Tsukuba, the average
speed of 34.3 km/h is equal to (1/34.3) = 0.0292 h/km.
Worksheet II
drive course
a
b
c
c
e
distance
time
speed
average
Examples:
average speed, km/h
hours/km
Tsukuba
34.3
0.0292
Tokyo
19.2
0.0521
speed including time to earn the money to pay for the car and car use
total h/km
0.0490
0.0719
average km/h
20.4
13.9
Q5. How does the speed of local driving you calculated for your family differ
from that for the Japanese example?
Q6. Compare how much time it would take for you to travel by foot, bicycle, car
and public transport for some of your local trips.
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B7.4. How hard do you have to work to own a car?
Q7. Do you want to work harder to buy a good car?
Cars are expensive. Car owners must spend a substantial part of their working time earning
money to pay for their cars. In a sense, this time spent earning money to pay for the car could be
considered part of the travel time.
Worksheet III—Estimate how much time the providers in your family spend or would spend to
earn the money needed for each km of travel in a family car. Start from the after-tax income and
divide by hours worked: this will give income per hour. If sharing the real information with
your classmates and teacher is against your value of privacy, then use some typical values
for your community.
The average after-tax annual income for salaried employees in Japan in 2001 was 5576676 yen
for 1848 hours of work, or 3018 yen/h. Divide the cost/km traveled you calculated in Worksheet
I by the income per hour; this gives hours worked to pay for each kilometer driven. For Japan, 60
yen/km divided by 3018 yen/h gives 0.0198 h of work to pay for each km the car is driven. Add
this number to the average speed of local trips from Worksheet II (also in units of hours per
kilometer) to get another estimate of average speed: for Tsukuba, the sum of 0.0198 + 0.0292 =
0.0490 h/km. To convert the sum back into units of km/h, divide it into 1. For the example
calculated for Tsukuba, when we include the time required to earn the cost of car ownership and
use, then the average speed of local driving is reduced from about 34.3 to 20.4 km/h, equivalent
to vigorous bicycling speed. Traveling by car does not provide an exercise benefit that is
provided by walking or cycling.
Worksheet III
monthly after-tax income (mean for salaried workers)
annual disposable income
hours worked/year
yen/h
hours of work to pay for each km of car travel
minutes of work to pay for each km of car travel
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464723
5576676
1848
3018
0.0198
1.2
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B7.5. Can we quantify ethics?
Some other costs of car use are more difficult to quantify. Cars release much of the carbon
dioxide, causing the greenhouse effect, which is now causing climate change and warming the
Earth. In Japan, 8326 people were killed in traffic accidents in 2002. Cars cause much of the air
pollution. Every year air pollution kills about 2.7 to 3 million people, about 6% of all deaths.
Even for people who are not killed, air pollution damages health causing much sickness and
disability. Health care for people sickened by air pollution represents a cost of car use not
included in the calculations above.
Cars require networks of paved roads. These roads are built with taxes we pay to the
government; road construction and maintenance are costs of car use not included in the
calculations above. Paving reduces the land's ability to absorb water; as paving increases, the
flooding and destruction caused by heavy rains also increases. Roads fragment natural habitats,
interrupting migration pathways; cars also kill many animals on roads. Structuring our cities and
towns to favor car use also makes them less friendly to pedestrians and cyclists. While traveling
in a car, the local environment is the car; cars cut people of from experiencing natural
environments and from interactions with other people.
Q8. Can we or should we try to express this loss of lives in monetary terms? Has
anyone you love been killed or injured in a traffic accident
Q9. Can you think of some other costs and benefits of local car use that are
excluded from the calculations? How can we compare and balance costs and
benefits that have different units?
Q10. Can you think of some other technologies that are causing large changes in
ecosystems or in the way people live? If so, what are some of the costs and
benefits of these other technologies?
Q11. Should all technologies be used? Can any technologies be stopped?
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B8. Energy crisis, resources & environment
Chapter Objectives.
There are limits to the human consumption of different
forms of energy and natural resources. Environmental
impacts from our consumption depend upon the different
forms of energy or resource, rates of use, and whether or
not they are renewable.
This chapter aims to:
1. Describe the different forms of conventional and
non-conventional energies.
2. Illustrate dilemmas between use of energy and
preservation of the environment.
3. Consider conservation of different natural resources.
B8.1. Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy is found on our planet in a variety of forms,
some of which are immediately useful, while others requires a process of transformation from
one form to another which is easier to use. Energy is an important input for development of
society.
The energy consumption of a nation is usually considered as an index of its development.
This is because almost all developmental activities are directly or indirectly dependent upon
energy. We find wide disparity in per capita energy use between the developed and developing
nations. Because of eminent shortages in conventional energy sources there is increasing
attention to non-conventional energy sources such as solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy,
geothermal energy and biomass energy.
In tapping the non conventional energy sources an eco-friendly approach is essential in
order to keep our environment more habitable. Energy sources can classified into conventional
energy sources and non conventional energy sources.
B8.2. Conventional Energy Sources
The conventional energy sources include, coal, oil, natural gas and biomass.
Coal is the most widely used fossil fuel. Anthracite coal which is harder with low sulphur
content and more than 90% carbon is considered better than the bituminous coal which is softer
with 70% to 90% carbon and produces less heat than the anthracite. A coal mine is called a
colliery. The major coal uses in the world are in the iron and steel industry, and generating
electricity from heat in thermal power plants. In high temperature and pressure coal can be
converted to coal gas, which can also be used like natural gas.
Burning of coal creates environmental problems due to the production of fly ash, SO2,
oxides of nitrogen, different hydrocarbons and acid rain problems. Coal dust also affects
vegetation leading to coloured necrotic symptoms. Fly ash also contaminates water and leads to
heavy metal pollution. Coal is the world’s single largest contributor for global warming.
.
Collaborating author: M. Selvanayagam, India
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Q1. Can you suggest five
ways to prevent global
warming?
Activity 1: Group activity –
start planting trees in your
gardens, and in places the
community wants to have
more trees.
Q2. What is your ethical
concern about air pollution?
List out advantages and
disadvantages of oil in daily
life?
Oil is the second major conventional energy source. This is more inflammable than coal
with highest energy content per unit of fuel matter. Oil is found as organic remains within
underground sedimentary deposits at different parts of the world. Crude oil is taken from the
ground, refined in oil refineries and categorized into different forms based on the purity, petrol,
diesel and gasoline. Kerosene and lubricating oils are also produced.
Oil powered vehicles emits CO2, SO2, NO2, CO and particulate matter that are major
causes of air pollution, especially in urban areas with heavy traffic density. Leaded petrol leads
to neurological damages. Petrol vehicles can be run with unleaded fuel by adding catalytic
converters on all the new cars but unleaded fuel contains benzene and butadiene which are
known to be carcinogenic compounds (See chapter B7).
Natural gas is mainly composed of methane with small amounts of propane and ethane.
Natural gas deposits are mostly found along with oil deposits because they have been formed by
decomposing remains of dead animals and plants buried under the earth. Natural gas is the
cleanest fuel. It can be easily transported through pipelines. It has high calorific value and burns
without any smoke. It is used as a domestic fuel, industrial fuel and also in power plants for
generating electricity. It is also used as a source of hydrogen gas in the fertilizer industry and as a
source of carbon in the tyre industry, for example.
Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used as an alternative to petrol and diesel for
transport of vehicles. Nowadays buses and auto-rickshaws run on this new fuel. This has greatly
reduced the vehicular pollution.
Synthetic natural gas (SNG) is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. It is a
connecting link between a fossil fuel and substituted natural gas. Low grade coal is initially
transformed into synthetic gas by gasification followed by catalytic conversion of methane.
Group activity: Visit a natural gas plant and submit a mini project report.
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B8.3. Non conventional energy sources
Non-conventional energy sources are mostly renewable, which can be generated
continuously in nature and are inexhaustible. These energy sources are not yet used widely by
human beings due to easy availability of conventional energy sources. Due to over-exploitation
of conventional energy sources and its impact has deteriorated the quality of our environment.
This has necessitated the transition towards non-conventional energy sources, which are more
eco friendly and non-exhaustible.
Solar energy: Solar radiation is one of the cheapest energies available throughout daytime and
can be trapped through various ways. For example, consider the following cases.
a. Solar thermal devices such as solar cookers, solar water heaters that concentrate solar
radiation with the help of a reflector to form heat. The solar energy received by near earth
space is approximately 1.4 kiljoules/second/m2, this is known as the solar constant.
b. Photovoltaic (PV) silicon devices of solar cells directly convert solar radiation to
electricity and are widely used to create solar lamps. Solar cells are made of thin wafers
of semiconductor materials like silicon and gallium. When solar radiation falls on them a
potential difference is produced which causes a flow of electrons and produces electricity.
By using gallium arsenide, cadmium sulphide or boron, the efficiency of the PV cells can
be improved. A group of solar cells joined together in a definite pattern form a solar panel,
which can harness a large amount of solar energy and can produce enough electricity to
run streetlights, irrigation water pumps. Similar cells are also used in calculators,
electronic watches, and traffic signals.
c. Solar cookers: solar cookers make use of solar heat by reflecting the solar radiation using
mirrors directly on to a glass sheet which covers a black insulated box within which the
raw food is kept. A new design of solar cooker is now available which involves a
spherical reflector instead of plane mirror that has more heating and hence greater
efficiency.
Q3. Please collect data on how many houses, institutions, and industries have set
up solar water heaters.
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Q4. List ways and means you can conserve the energy.
Wind energy was the earliest energy source used for long distance transportation, by
sailing ships. Today some countries like Denmark and Germany, and the state of California in
USA, have large wind turbines cooperatives, which sell electricity to the central electricity grid.
Wind power is the function of wind speed and therefore the average wind speed of an area is an
important determinant of economically feasible power. Wind energy is harnessed by making use
of windmills. The blades of the windmills keep on rotating continuously due to the force of
striking wind.
During the past two decades there has been a great deal of technical progress made in
the design, sitting and installation, operation and maintenance of power producing windmills.
These improvements have resulted in decreased cost of electricity production. The rotational
motion of the blades is converted into energy for a number of machines like water pumps,
flourmills and electric generation. A large number of windmills are installed in clusters called
wind forms and feed power to the utility grid and produce a large amount of electricity. These
forms are ideally located in coastal regions, open grasslands or hilly regions, particularly
mountain passes and ridges where the winds are strong and steady. Wind energy is very useful,
as it does not cause environmental pollution, though it changes the appearance of the landscape.
After initial installation cost, the wind energy is very cheap.
Tidal energy: Tidal and oceanic waves have enormous
potentiality to produce electricity as continuous rotation of
turbines can be achieved to generate electricity if tidal waves
are allowed to make impact on turbines continuously. Kinetic
energy of tidal flow can be harnessed through two main
technologies namely:
a. Lift device turbine where the windmill type of technology
is applied to the liquid environment. Here the propeller has
speed much faster than the current speed and is considered to
be most efficient device.
b. Drag device water wheels technology is less efficient than
the lift device and the blade speed is unable to exceed that of
the current.
Geothermal energy is derived from the heat present in the interior of the earth, and can be
converted into heat and electricity. Three popular technologies to harness this energy are
1) Geothermal heat pumps that use shallow ground energy to heat and cool buildings; 2) directly
piped hot water to warm greenhouses, of bathing; and 3) power plants that generate electricity
from geothermal reservoirs like deep wells. Suitable sites for power generation from geothermal
energy includes volcanic locations, geysers and hot springs, and it is used in New Zealand to
generate electricity.
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Biogas is a mixture of methane, CO2, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. This gas is obtained
from biological degradation of organic wastes. For example in India, gobar gas is derived from
cow dung within a chamber of suitable environment the presence of water. Digestion of cattle
excreta within a chamber primarily by methanogenic bacteria provides an ecofriendly technology
to produce a large amount of biogas that can be used local villages for cooking. Biogas plants
also produce large quantity of refuse in the form of slurry, which can be used as organic
fertilizers. Biogas is non-polluting, clear and low cost fuel which is very useful for rural areas
where a lot of animal waste and agricultural waste are available. You could try to setup a mini
biogas plant in your house/institution.
Energy from solid waste: As the population increases day by day, the amount of waste
generated is also increasing. One of the important methods of solid waste management is using
this waste for energy production. This waste can be burnt to produce heat that creates steam from
water in the boilers. This steam can be used to rotate turbines for generating electricity. This
energy is popularly known as trash power. However, the solid waste burning creates air pollution,
unless it is incinerated under very careful conditions.
Nuclear energy is known for its high destructive power as evidenced from nuclear weapons.
The nuclear energy can be harnessed by two methods, namely nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
1. Nuclear fission: the nucleus of certain isotopes with large mass numbers are split into higher
nuclei on bombardment by neutrons and a large amount of energy is released through a chain
reaction.
2. Nuclear fusion: two isotopes of light
elements are forced together at extremely
high temperature around 1 billion degrees
Celsius until they fuse to form a heavier
nucleus releasing an enormous amount of
energy in the process. It is difficult to
initiate the process but it releases more
energy than nuclear fission. It is not yet used
for energy production.
The major problem related to nuclear energy is the disposal of nuclear waste. The management,
storage and disposal of radioactive wastes resulting from the nuclear power generation are the
biggest expenses of the nuclear power industry. Human errors have created disasters or accidents
in nuclear power plants in the past, such as in Chernobyl in the former USSR. It will result in
collapse of both living and non-living components of our ecosystems.
Q5. Do you know the destructive power of nuclear energy? Can you suggest
some safe disposal methods for nuclear waste.
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B8.4. Energy and Resource Conservation
Conserving energy for the future has become a key issue in the present scenario of
environmental degradation and protection. Energy saved is energy given for another day. Saving
energy will cut down pollution levels and help our fossil fuel last longer. We should improve the
energy efficiency of our own operation. We should use creativity in the development of new
technologies to achieve greater efficiency in energy transfer. We should encourage people to use
less polluting energy sources so that the damage caused to our environment will be reduced (See
other chapters also in section B).
Q6. Give examples of eco-friendly approaches in all our activities and ways we
can reduce energy use.
Natural Resources are the resources, which are available in nature, which are necessary and
useful for human needs in the form of matter and energy. They help to improve the quality of
human life when used well. These natural resources includes air, water, soil and minerals along
with the solar energy as abiotic factors, while biotic factors consist of plants, animals and
microbes.
Mineral resources: Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solids having a
definite chemical composition and characteristic properties. Commonly used minerals are quartz,
feldspar, biotitic, dolomite, calcite, and laterite. Use metals by human beings have been extensive
since the beginning of human civilization. The metals used in maximum quantity are iron,
followed by manganese, copper, chromium, aluminum and nickel. Coal is a major source of
energy.
Mining includes extracting minerals from deep deposits in soil by using sub-surfacing mining,
or from shallow deposits by surface mining. Open-pit mining, dredging and strip mining are
forms of surface mining. The damage done to the environment from mining is enormous. It
results in devegetation and defacing of landscape, subsidence of land, ground water pollution,
surface water pollution, air pollution, and occupational health hazards for the workers.
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Hydrosphere: Water is our most abundant resource, covering about 71% of the earth’s surface.
This precious film of water is about 97% salt water and the remainder is fresh water. Water helps
maintain the earth’s climate and dilute the environmental pollutants. Essential to all life, water
constitutes from 50% to 97% of the weight of all plants and animals and about 70% of our body.
Water is also essential for agriculture, manufacturing, transportation and countless other human
activities. Water is a precious commodity, and we need to think how to conserve water.
Food Resources: The main food resources include wheat, rice, maize, potato, barley oats,
cassava, sweet potato, sugarcane, pulses, sorghum, millet, fruits, vegetables, milk, meat, fish and
seafood. Meat and milk are mainly consumed by more developed countries while rice, wheat,
maize are staple foods everywhere. Deficiency or lack of nutrition often leads to malnutrition
resulting in several diseases in the developing countries. In some of the developing countries,
even though the production has increased considerably still there is a starvation and hunger
prevails. Conserving genetic resources for food and agriculture is veryt important and the
subject of international treaties.
Every two seconds someone dies of hunger in the world. This is mainly due to improper
distribution systems. The green revolution brought modern agriculture in terms of using more
fertilizer, pesticides and new hybrid varieties but it also lead to undesirable changes in our
environment. Even though the pesticides and fertilizers have increased the productivity it also
became lethal to some of the useful and beneficial insects and animals. In order to increase our
agricultural productivity and minimize the damage of pesticides on environment, agriculturists
are encouraged to take up organic farming which is one of the traditional ways of agriculture.
Organic farming refers to agricultural production system used to produce food and
fibre with out chemicals namely pesticide and fertilizers. Organic farming relies on developing
biological diversity in the field to disrupt habitat for pest organisms and the purposeful
maintenance and replenishment of soil fertility. The maintenance of soil fertility relies
principally on the use of legumes, crop rotations, the application of composted animal manures.
Certain wild species commonly known as wildlife resources are important because of their
actual and potential economic value to people. Wildlife resources that provide sport in the form
of hunting and fishing are known as game species. Biological resources provide people with a
wide variety of direct economic benefits as a sources of food, spices, flowering agent, soap,
cocking oils, lubricating, waxes, dyes, natural insecticides, papers, fuels, fiber, leathers, natural
rubber, medicines and other important materials. Aspirin, probably the worlds most widely used
drug, was developed according the chemical “blue print” supplied by a compound extracted from
the leaves of a tropical willow tree. A fungus produces penicillin. The ethical issues of animal
use are discussed in chapters A3 and A4.
Q7. Please consider how to conserve natural resources? Think of ways to
conserve water, conserve Energy, protect the soil, and promote sustainable
agriculture.
Q8. Which biological resources did you use yesterday in your daily life?
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B9. Ecotourism
Chapter objectives.
Tourism is a popular hobby and an important economic
activity. There are different reasons that people use to
choose holiday destinations.
This chapter aims to:
1. Introduce the concept of ecotourism.
2. Make people reflect on the potential impacts of tourism
on local environments and cultures.
B9.1. Holidays
This chapter includes a number of questions and activities, which we hope makes you
think about the ethical issues of travel and holidays. Have fun! If you cannot think of where
you have been, then think about what you would like to do.
Q1
Reflect for five to ten minutes on two or three holidays youhave had.
Where did you go? What kinds of activities did you engage in?
Q2 Make a list of things you enjoyed the most and the least?
Q3 Compare your list with others. Think of some possible reasons why you liked or
disliked these activities.
Now, read this postcard together …
15 July 2003
Dear Lisa,
Thanks for the letter. It’s really hot in the
city. Do you think I have hope to shed a few
kilos? Happy to know you have settled
in
your new home.
I took a 4-day break in Palawan, such a
lovely place!
I went
island hopping
around Honda Bay. And I also have a
picture with a crocodile from the Wildlife
Conservation Institute, if
that’s anything
to brag about.
Oh, my sister came over for a 2 week visit.
It was fun being with her again.
Take care,
TO:
Lisa Yamamoto
320 Fukuroda Heights
Sakura 2-1-1
Tsuchiura, Ibaraki
Japan 305-005
FROM: Maria Santos
45 Rizal Drive
Happy Village
Quezon City
Philippines 1001
Maria 
Q4. What kind of holiday did Maria have? Did she enjoy her holiday?
Why do you think so? What do you think she did on her holiday?
Q5. Write postcards to each other about your recent holiday.
.
Collaborating author: MaryAnn Chen Ng, Philippines/USA
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B9.2 Tourism and Nature
Q6. Look at the tourist activities below. Are there any words that you don’t understand?
Adventure Racing
River Rafting
Photo Safari
Surfing
Beach bumming
Canopy Walking
Alternative Tourism
Listening to Nature
Sustainable Tourism
Bungee Jumping
Scuba Diving
Cultural Tours
Whale/Dolphin Watching
Archaeological Tours
Looking at Flowers
Fishing
Trekking
Bird Watching
Swimming
Repelling
Going to zoos
Shell Collecting
Hunting
Collecting Insects
Q7. Now, classify them according to Martha Honey’s classification scheme:
1. Wildlife Tourism: observing animals in their native habitat.
2. Nature Tourism: traveling to remote areas to enjoy and experience nature
3. Adventure Tourism: nature tourism involving risk-taking activities.
Draw a table like this on a piece of paper…
Wildlife Tourism
Nature Tourism
Adventure Tourism
Can you think of any other activities for each of these types?
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B9.3. What is Ecotourism?
Read what some people have thought about ecotourism:
Travelling to relatively
undisturbed or
uncontaminated natural areas
with the specific objective of
studying, admiring, and
enjoying the scenery and its
wild plants and animals, as
well as any existing cultural
manifestation.
Responsible travel
to natural areas
that conserves the
environment and
improves the
well-being of local
people.
Hector Ceballos Lascurain
The Ecotourism Society
Q8. Think about your classification in the previous section and the table you
made. Which of the activities can be considered as ecotourism?
Q9.
Write your own definition of ecotourism…
Name:
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B9.4.
Q10.
Q11.
Ecotour Packages
Quickly scan for the main attractions of the ecotour packages offered by
H&M Travel. What words would be appealing to a potential customer?
Which ecotour package would you choose? Why?
Are the two packages true examples of ecotourism?
H & M Travel
To:
Mario Gonzalez
From: Teresa Bautista
Date: 2/12/2016
Re:
Ecotour Package
Dear Mr. Gonzalez,
Greetings from H&M Travel!
It is nice to hear from you again. Regarding your inquiry, please find details as follows.
For further assistance, please feel free to write to us. We will be glad to assist you.
Best wishes,
Teresa
Ecotour Package A: Mountain Adventure
Visit the mystical mountains where a world of raw and unspoilt treasures
unfold. Come and behold the grandeur of breathtaking Crystal Falls.
Go wild along the river, trekking through primitive mountain trails. Witness
the glory of life in the legendary mountains for a bargain price of $100 !!!!
Rates are inclusive of three nights accommodation and full breakfast/lunch
/dinner daily. Leaves on M/W/F.
Ecotour Package B: Fun in the Sun
Soak up the sun at White Point, a place where magnificent mountains
meet blue seas. Go windsurfing, sea-kayaking, boating, snorkeling!
See a myriad of colors in the coral reefs teeming with breathtaking biodiversity.
Simply relax and experience our special hibiscus aromatherapy and massage
treatment. All these and more for a special price of $175!!! Rates are inclusive
of two nights accommodation and breakfast. Leaves on T/Th/Sat.
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B9.5. Interview with the Batcave Guide
Mr. Anderson: How far is it to the batcave?
Mike: It’s just a 30-minute hike up the
mountain, sir.
Mr. A: Is it dangerous?
Mike: No, sir. I’ve been taking visitors up there
since I was 8.
Mr. A: That young?
Mike: Around these parts, work is hard to
come by…so children need to help their parents
earn a living.
Mr. A: How much will it cost to hire your
services for the day?
Mike: It’s up to you, sir. But the Tour Guide
Association charges tourists a daily rate of $ 20.
Mr. A: How much goes to you?
Mike: Well, half goes to the association, bike
rental fees cost $4, $3 for gasoline, $1 for
entrance fee and the rest goes to me.
Mr. A: Entrance fee?
Mike: For the batcave, sir.
Batcave entrance…
Mr. A: It is stinky.
Mike: Yes, that’s the odor of the bats.
Watch your step, sir.
Q12. Let’s think about this
example?




Who benefits from ecotourism?
Does
it
contribute
to
environmental conservation?
What do ecotourists learn?
Are there any potential risks
involved?
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Name: Mike Santos
Age: 29
Marital Status: Married
# of Children: 2
Occupation: Tour Guide
Income: $2 /day
Mr. A: What is that net doing there?
Mike: Oh, the one hanging at the mouth of the
cave? That’s for catching bats.
Mr. A: Why in the world would you want to
catch bats?
Mike: Bats are a delicacy in this region. We
usually eat them during feasts.
Mr. A: Really?
Mike: No kidding, sir. Bat meat is quite
expensive when sold in town.
Mr. A: How do you cook it?
Mike: It’s usually boiled in soysauce and
vinegar, topped with chopped onions.
Quite delicious! Would you like to try some,
sir?
Mr. A: Maybe, next time.
Into the depths…
Mr. A: Oh, it’s fabulous down here. Those
stalactites are simply wonderful!
Mike: Yes, they are. Please use this umbrella,
sir.
Mr. A: Umbrella?
Mike: ….the bat droppings, sir.
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B9.6. Once in a South Pacific Island…
Island A, located in the South Pacific, has a local population of 800 people.
In the early
1900s, the island was dependent on fishing and agriculture. Huts were made from coconut
leaves. Non-islanders seldom visited this island in the middle of nowhere. All this changed in
the 1960s when a film crew “discovered” the island. Images of white sand beaches were
shown in various cinemas around the world. Some enterprising locals, with the help of foreign
investment, then developed the island into a tropical paradise get-away for weary travelers.
The 1970s saw the advent of rich tourists looking for exotic holidays away from civilization.
More tourists came to the island in the 1980s. No longer was the island a quiet fishing
community.
Q13. What could be a good title for this story?
Q14. What do you think happens next? Write your own version. What will be
the likely positive or negative impacts on the culture and environment of the
Island?
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B9.7. Case Study: Ecotourism in the Philippines
As you read the following, what would you say are the key words of the passage?
The Philippines, a developing country in South East Asia, is faced with the challenges of
an increasing population, poverty, inequality, and corruption. With more than a quarter of
the Filipino population falling below the poverty threshold, the pressure for productivity and
growth has led to practices that have resulted in environmental stress and degradation. In
response, the Philippine government has adopted the rhetoric of sustainable development as
defined by the 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development. Government
policies on economic development have reflected this vision of sustainability and poverty
reduction. A major part of the government’s economic development plan is ecotourism.
Ecotourism, as a Philippine government policy, had its roots in the 1991, 20-year Tourism
Master Plan developed by the Philippine Department of Tourism, the United Nations
Development Program, and the World Tourism Organization. This blueprint on the
development of the tourism industry aims to “be sensitive”, “contribute to livelihood”,
“minimize impact of negative factors”, “maximize and generate sustainable growth”. In 1998,
the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the Department of Tourism issued
a joint-memorandum, Guide Laws for Ecotourism Development in the Philippines, wherein
ecotourism was defined as:
“A low-impact, environmentally-sound and community-participatory tourism activity in
a given natural environment that enhances the conservation of biophysical understanding and
education and yields socio-economic benefits to the concerned community.”
The present government has reiterated the importance of tourism as “a major engine of
socio-economic development”. Specifically, it has been promoting ecotourism as a key to
sustainable development.
Reading Analysis:
Q15. What is the point-of-view of the author? Which word/phrase/part indicates the
message of the text? What is the tone of the text? Who is being addressed? What kind of
time and place is it set in? Do you agree or disagree with the author’s main point? Is there a
main point?
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Activity: Talking Points on Ecotourism and Holidays
In groups, please discuss at least two of the following questions:
Q16.
How important are “holidays” and “leisure time” in your life?
Q17.
What is the ideal holiday for you? Where will you go? What will you do? Who will
you go with?
Q18.
Would you go on an ecotour? What factors would be important in your decision
whether or not to go on an ecotour?
Q19.
Have you gone on an ecotour? How did you feel and what did you know before
going? And afterwards? Does school organize any "ecotrips" for the day?
Q20.
Do you think that the goals of ecotourism can be achieved? Why? Why not?
Q21.
Are there any examples of ecotourism in your country? What kind of role does
ecotourism play in your country’s development plan?
Q22.
What do you think are the ethical issues of ecotourism? Is it possible to resolve
these issues? Is it necessary to find right answers to these questions?
Q23.
If you were given the authority to decide whether to adopt ecotourism policies for
your country, would you do so or not? Why? Why not?
Possible Project Topics

Make an ecotour brochure. Be as creative as possible.

Research into ecotourism in your country. Create a country profile.

Imagine that you are in charge of your country’s tourism department. How would you
market your country as a prime ecotourist destination?
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B10. The Earth Charter Initiative
The principles of the Earth Charter reflect extensive international
consultations conducted over a period of many years. These
principles are also based upon contemporary science, international
law, and the insights of philosophy and religion.
Successive drafts of the Earth Charter were circulated around the
world for comment and debate by nongovernmental organizations,
community groups, professional societies, and international experts
in many fields. [www.earthcharter.org]
Vision for the Earth Charter Initiative
The Earth Charter was officially launched at the Peace Palace in The Hague on June
29, 2000. The vision is to establish a sound ethical foundation for the emerging global society
and to help build a sustainable world based on respect for nature, universal human rights,
economic justice, and a culture of peace. The charter raises a number of points related to
environmental ethics and can be used for debate. 2005-2014 is the Decade for Education for
Sustainable Development, launched under the lead of UNESCO. There have been a number of
global environmental statements, including the Convention on Biological Diversity and
Agenda 21 that arose out of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The texts are available
on the Internet, but for discussion of environmental ethics this document is more challenging
upon the readers, and it is yet to be adopted at the UN.
Objectives of the Earth Charter:
•
To promote the dissemination, endorsement, and implementation of the Earth Charter by
civil society, business, and government.
•
To encourage and support the educational use of the Earth Charter in schools,
universities, faith communities, and many other settings.
•
To seek endorsement of the Earth Charter by the UN.
PREAMBLE
We stand at a critical moment in Earth's history, a time when humanity must choose its
future. As the world becomes increasingly interdependent and fragile, the future at once holds
great peril and great promise. To move forward we must recognize that in the midst of a
magnificent diversity of cultures and life forms we are one human family and one Earth
community with a common destiny. We must join to bring forth a sustainable global society
founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace.
Towards this end, it is imperative that we, the peoples of Earth, declare our responsibility to
one another, to the greater community of life, and to future generations.
Earth, Our Home
Humanity is part of a vast evolving universe. Earth, our home, is alive with a unique
community of life. The forces of nature make existence a demanding and uncertain adventure,
but Earth has provided the conditions essential to life's evolution. The resilience of the
community of life and the well being of humanity depend upon preserving a healthy biosphere
with all its ecological systems, a rich variety of plants and animals, fertile soils, pure waters,
and clean air. The global environment with its finite resources is a common concern of all
peoples. The protection of Earth's vitality, diversity, and beauty is a sacred trust.
The Global Situation
The dominant patterns of production and consumption are causing environmental
devastation, the depletion of resources, and a massive extinction of species. Communities
are being undermined. The benefits of development are not shared equitably and the gap
between rich and poor is widening. Injustice, poverty, ignorance, and violent conflict are
widespread and the cause of great suffering. An unprecedented rise in human population has
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overburdened ecological and social systems. The foundations of global security are threatened.
These trends are perilous—but not inevitable.
The Challenges Ahead
The choice is ours: form a global partnership to care for Earth and one another or risk
the destruction of ourselves and the diversity of life. Fundamental changes are needed in our
values, institutions, and ways of living. We must realize that when basic needs have been met,
human development is primarily about being more, not having more. We have the knowledge
and technology to provide for all and to reduce our impacts on the environment. The
emergence of a global civil society is creating new opportunities to build a democratic and
humane world. Our environmental, economic, political, social, and spiritual challenges are
interconnected, and together we can forge inclusive solutions.
Universal Responsibility
To realize these aspirations, we must decide to live with a sense of universal
responsibility, identifying ourselves with the whole Earth community as well as our local
communities. We are at once citizens of different nations and of one world in which the local
and global are linked. Everyone shares responsibility for the present and future well being of
the human family and the larger living world. The spirit of human solidarity and kinship with
all life is strengthened when we live with reverence for the mystery of being, gratitude for the
gift of life, and humility regarding the human place in nature.
We urgently need a shared vision of basic values to provide an ethical foundation for
the emerging world community. Therefore, together in hope we affirm the following
interdependent principles for a sustainable way of life as a common standard by which the
conduct of all individuals, organizations, businesses, governments, and transnational
institutions is to be guided and assessed.
PRINCIPLES
I.
RESPECT AND CARE FOR THE COMMUNITY OF LIFE
1.
Respect Earth and life in all its diversity.
a. Recognize that all beings are interdependent and every form of life has value regardless of
its worth to human beings.
b. Affirm faith in the inherent dignity of all human beings and in the intellectual, artistic,
ethical, and spiritual potential of humanity.
2.
Care for the community of life with understanding, compassion, and love.
a. Accept that with the right to own, manage, and use natural resources comes the duty to
prevent environmental harm and to protect the rights of people.
b. Affirm that with increased freedom, knowledge, and power comes increased responsibility
to promote the common good.
3.
Build democratic societies that are just, participatory, sustainable, and peaceful.
a. Ensure that communities at all levels guarantee human rights and fundamental freedoms and
provide everyone an opportunity to realize his or her full potential.
b. Promote social and economic justice, enabling all to achieve a secure and meaningful
livelihood that is ecologically responsible.
4.
Secure Earth's bounty and beauty for present and future generations.
a. Recognize that the freedom of action of each generation is qualified by the needs of future
generations.
b. Transmit to future generations values, traditions, and institutions that support the long-term
flourishing of Earth's human and ecological communities.
In order to fulfill these four broad commitments, it is necessary to:
II. ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY
5.
Protect and restore the integrity of Earth's ecological systems, with special concern for
biological diversity and the natural processes that sustain life.
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a. Adopt at all levels sustainable development plans and regulations that make environmental
conservation and rehabilitation integral to all development initiatives.
b. Establish and safeguard viable nature and biosphere reserves, including wild lands and
marine areas, to protect Earth's life support systems, maintain biodiversity, and preserve our
natural heritage.
c. Promote the recovery of endangered species and ecosystems.
d. Control and eradicate non-native or genetically modified organisms harmful to native
species and the environment, and prevent introduction of such harmful organisms.
e. Manage the use of renewable resources such as water, soil, forest products, and marine life
in ways that do not exceed rates of regeneration and that protect the health of ecosystems.
f. Manage the extraction and use of non-renewable resources such as minerals and fossil fuels
in ways that minimize depletion and cause no serious environmental damage.
6. Prevent harm as the best method of environmental protection and, when knowledge is
limited, apply a precautionary approach.
a. Take action to avoid the possibility of serious or irreversible environmental harm even when
scientific knowledge is incomplete or inconclusive.
b. Place the burden of proof on those who argue that a proposed activity will not cause
significant harm, and make the responsible parties liable for environmental harm.
c. Ensure that decision-making addresses the cumulative, long-term, indirect, long distance,
and global consequences of human activities.
d. Prevent pollution of any part of the environment and allow no build-up of radioactive, toxic,
or other hazardous substances.
e. Avoid military activities damaging to the environment.
7. Adopt patterns of production, consumption, and reproduction that safeguard Earth's
regenerative capacities, human rights, and community well being.
a. Reduce, reuse, and recycle the materials used in production and consumption systems, and
ensure that residual waste can be assimilated by ecological systems.
b. Act with restraint and efficiency when using energy, and rely increasingly on renewable
energy sources such as solar and wind.
c. Promote the development, adoption, and equitable transfer of environmentally sound
technologies.
d. Internalize the full environmental and social costs of goods and services in the selling price,
and enable consumers to identify products that meet the highest social and environmental
standards.
e. Ensure universal access to health care that fosters reproductive health and responsible
reproduction.
f. Adopt lifestyles that emphasize the quality of life and material sufficiency in a finite world.
8. Advance the study of ecological sustainability and promote the open exchange and wide
application of the knowledge acquired.
a. Support international scientific and technical cooperation on sustainability, with special
attention to the needs of developing nations.
b. Recognize and preserve the traditional knowledge and spiritual wisdom in all cultures that
contribute to environmental protection and human well-being.
c. Ensure that information of vital importance to human health and environmental protection,
including genetic information, remains available in the public domain.
III. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC JUSTICE
9. Eradicate poverty as an ethical, social, and environmental imperative.
a. Guarantee the right to potable water, clean air, food security, uncontaminated soil, shelter,
and safe sanitation, allocating the national and international resources required.
b. Empower every human being with the education and resources to secure a sustainable
livelihood, and provide social security and safety nets for those who are unable to support
themselves.
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c. Recognize the ignored, protect the vulnerable, serve those who suffer, and enable them to
develop their capacities and to pursue their aspirations.
10. Ensure that economic activities and institutions at all levels promote human development
in an equitable and sustainable manner.
a. Promote the equitable distribution of wealth within nations and among nations.
b. Enhance the intellectual, financial, technical, and social resources of developing nations,
and relieve them of onerous international debt.
c. Ensure that all trade supports sustainable resource use, environmental protection, and
progressive labor standards.
d. Require multinational corporations and international financial organizations to act
transparently in the public good, and hold them accountable for the consequences of their
activities.
11. Affirm gender equality and equity as prerequisites to sustainable development and
ensure universal access to education, health care, and economic opportunity.
a. Secure the human rights of women and girls and end all violence against them.
b. Promote the active participation of women in all aspects of economic, political, civil, social,
and cultural life as full and equal partners, decision makers, leaders, and beneficiaries.
c. Strengthen families and ensure the safety and loving nurture of all family members.
12. Uphold the right of all, without discrimination, to a natural and social environment
supportive of human dignity, bodily health, and spiritual well-being, with special attention to
the rights of indigenous peoples and minorities.
a. Eliminate discrimination in all its forms, such as that based on race, color, sex, sexual
orientation, religion, language, and national, ethnic or social origin.
b. Affirm the right of indigenous peoples to their spirituality, knowledge, lands and resources
and to their related practice of sustainable livelihoods.
c. Honor and support the young people of our communities, enabling them to fulfill their
essential role in creating sustainable societies.
d. Protect and restore outstanding places of cultural and spiritual significance.
IV. DEMOCRACY, NONVIOLENCE, AND PEACE
13. Strengthen democratic institutions at all levels, and provide transparency and
accountability in governance, inclusive participation in decision making, and access to justice.
a. Uphold the right of everyone to receive clear and timely information on environmental
matters and all development plans and activities which are likely to affect them or in which
they have an interest.
b. Support local, regional and global civil society, and promote the meaningful participation of
all interested individuals and organizations in decision making.
c. Protect the rights to freedom of opinion, expression, peaceful assembly, association, and
dissent.
d. Institute effective and efficient access to administrative and independent judicial procedures,
including remedies and redress for environmental harm and the threat of such harm.
e. Eliminate corruption in all public and private institutions.
f. Strengthen local communities, enabling them to care for their environments, and assign
environmental responsibilities to the levels of government where they can be carried out most
effectively.
14. Integrate into formal education and life-long learning the knowledge, values, and skills
needed for a sustainable way of life.
a. Provide all, especially children and youth, with educational opportunities that empower
them to contribute actively to sustainable development.
b. Promote the contribution of the arts and humanities as well as the sciences in sustainability
education.
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c. Enhance the role of the mass media in raising awareness of ecological and social challenges.
d. Recognize the importance of moral and spiritual education for sustainable living.
15. Treat all living beings with respect and consideration.
a. Prevent cruelty to animals kept in human societies and protect them from suffering.
b. Protect wild animals from methods of hunting, trapping, and fishing that cause extreme,
prolonged, or avoidable suffering.
c. Avoid or eliminate to the full extent possible the taking or destruction of non-targeted
species.
16. Promote a culture of tolerance, nonviolence, and peace.
a. Encourage and support mutual understanding, solidarity, and cooperation among all peoples
and within and among nations.
b. Implement comprehensive strategies to prevent violent conflict and use collaborative
problem solving to manage and resolve environmental conflicts and other disputes.
c. Demilitarize national security systems to the level of a non-provocative defense posture, and
convert military resources to peaceful purposes, including ecological restoration.
d. Eliminate nuclear, biological, and toxic weapons and other weapons of mass destruction.
e. Ensure that the use of orbital and outer space supports environmental protection and peace.
f. Recognize that peace is the wholeness created by right relationships with oneself, other
persons, other cultures, other life, Earth, and the larger whole of which all are a part.
THE WAY FORWARD
As never before in history, common destiny beckons us to seek a new beginning. Such
renewal is the promise of these Earth Charter principles. To fulfill this promise, we must
commit ourselves to adopt and promote the values and objectives of the Charter.
This requires a change of mind and heart. It requires a new sense of global
interdependence and universal responsibility. We must imaginatively develop and apply the
vision of a sustainable way of life locally, nationally, regionally, and globally. Our cultural
diversity is a precious heritage and different cultures will find their own distinctive ways to
realize the vision. We must deepen and expand the global dialogue that generated the Earth
Charter, for we have much to learn from the ongoing collaborative search for truth and
wisdom.
Life often involves tensions between important values. This can mean difficult
choices. However, we must find ways to harmonize diversity with unity, the exercise of
freedom with the common good, short-term objectives with long-term goals. Every
individual, family, organization, and community has a vital role to play. The arts, sciences,
religions, educational institutions, media, businesses, nongovernmental organizations, and
governments are all called to offer creative leadership. The partnership of government, civil
society, and business is essential for effective governance.
In order to build a sustainable global community, the nations of the world must renew
their commitment to the United Nations, fulfill their obligations under existing international
agreements, and support the implementation of Earth Charter principles with an international
legally binding instrument on environment and development.
Let ours be a time remembered for the awakening of a new reverence for life, the firm
resolve to achieve sustainability, the quickening of the struggle for justice and peace, and the
joyful celebration of life.
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