GLOBALIZATION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR LIFELONG LEARNING
Kenneth E. Paprock
Texas A&M University
kpaprock@tamu.edu
Abstract
Trying to design and implement a global strategy is no longer appropriate. Instead
a triad strategy is required. This article examines globalization and how it may
have implications for lifelong learning. Information increases along with
technological changes have created a knowledge-based society along with an
anomalous situation for many people. Learning approaches for assimilation and
accommodation are discussed and strategies for helping adults learn are presented.
Possible projections influencing human resource development and lifelong
education are presented, along with critical issues confronting practitioners.
Keywords: Globalization, lifelong learning, knowledge-based society, and learning
approaches
Introduction
Barber (1996) exemplifies global culture with three Ms: “MTV, Macintosh, and
McDonalds” (p.4). Other sites include theme parks, the Internet, television, tourist’s sites,
shopping malls, and a plethora of consumer goods. As part of a worldwide consumer culture,
each is driven by the now triumphant and relentless logic of the marketplace. Increasing
numbers of people all over the world now experience the same complex repertoires of print,
celluloid, electronic screens, and bill boards. For educators concerned with culture (e.g.,
Barnard, 1998; Duncum & Bracey, 2001), this wide range of imagery is grist to the mill
because, as Debord (1967) was able to write a full generation ago, “All life presents itself as an
immense accumulation of spectacles”. He argued that, whereas an earlier phase of capitalism
there was a slide from being into having, there is now, with what he called the ‘society of the
spectacle’, a slide from having into appearing (p.5).
Read 10 newspaper articles about globalization, and you will read ten – and perhaps
more - different definitions of globalization. Globalization, I believe, reflects a process in
which social relations are not only linked at the economic level but also permeate the political,
social, cultural and environmental spheres, to impact on everyday life. Since the end of the
Cold War, we have seen three forces that have created a more linked, and integrated world:
1. The spread of free market forces;
2. The impact of new communications and information technology;
3. The rise of emerging markets;
One thing to note here is that linking potentially allows for choices, but how we link
depends also on with what we choose to link. Contrary to popular beliefs, information does not
necessarily lead to knowledge (Davis & Botkin, 1994). Rather, information leads to awareness,
which in turn, leads to choice. The choices are what can lead to learning and change.
The terms “global” and “international,” and even “intercultural, cross cultural and
multicultural” in relationship to education are often used without discretion, while some other
authors are very eager to establish and clarify differences. The ERIC Clearing House on
Higher Education explains the differences of these terms, in a critical issue bibliography sheet
on internationalization of Post-Secondary Education, “each has a distinct meaning, but all
emphasize the importance of the diverse cultures of the world as critical to education” (ERIC,
2002, p.1).
1
For some, the difference between terms is on the breath, depth, quantity and quality
attained in the process of change. These difference start with efforts focused in reaching an
intercultural, cross-cultural and multicultural education, reaching later an international
education, and then, finally reaching a global education, meaning that the process of
transformational change is complete, although not final.
For others the terms do not belong to the same process of transformation, and each of them has
its own boundaries: multicultural deals with cultures within a country, international deals with
a set of different separate countries, and, in occasions, with the interactions between these
countries, but maintaining them apart and separate, and global deals with just one, independent
world with no boundaries.
However defined, globalization is the process that is shrinking and transforming our
world – speeding up the flow of information and resources, and bringing people and
organizations and countries closer together, whether they like it or not. Globalization is a real
and unavoidable process, with very real challenges, opportunities and – yes – threats.
What are the costs that globalization imposes? New ideas, fast moving change, unfamiliar
concepts, an economy driven by the private sector rather than one planned by the government.
There are economic disruptions and social changes as an economy and societies adjust to
become more competitive in the global market. These are issues all nations face in the era of
globalization.
Education and Approaches to Lifelong Learning
Education for development gained prominence as an issue within international debates from
the sixties and seventies. All this history included a range of views and experiences from
different perspectives and approaches to development. So far these differences in perspective
have been in terms of two ends of a spectrum. At one end, there were approaches based on a
view of development that started from the economic and political agendas. And conversely, at
the other end of the spectrum, there were alternative approaches, for national liberation and
social change.
But another dimension to these differences of approach is also relevant when
attempting to make comparisons and contrasts between approaches in the First and Third
Worlds. These differences are characterized in terms of the emphasis on adult education for
individual development and self-fulfilment in the North, in contrasts to the more collective
development focus in the South.
At this point it might be useful to identify four different tendencies for education, training, and
development, rather than simply two tendencies mentioned above. This four-tendency model
draws upon the approach which has been developed by Shanahan, in characterizing different
contemporary approaches to adult education in various contexts (as cited in Mayo, 1997,
p.58-59).
Tendency 1: Academic in the sense of non-technical/vocational adult education, for individuals,
within the current socio-economic and political context.
Modifies version of Tendency 1: A market-led approach, individualistic emphasizing
individual choices, through market-mechanisms.
Tendency 2: Training geared to fitting the individual adult learner into the requirements of the
current socio-economic and political context.
Modified version for Tendency 2: Collective, market-led approaches to training
emphasizing the overall importance of market-led approaches to development and renewal,
but recognizing the relevance of collective and community-based approaches to reach
these ends.
Tendency 3: Professional education/training to train professionals to act as change agents,
acting on other people’s environments, accepting the need for change, but for change as
2
defined by experts rather than those directly affected.
Modified version of Tendency 3: Individualistic approaches to education for
transformation. Academic, “armchair” approaches to political education, and education for
transformation, would fit here, along with approaches which emphasized the role of the
leader, as change agent, to such an extent as to devalue the role of the people directly
affected.
Tendency 4: Adult education and training for groups and communities, geared towards
empowerment and transformation.
Modified version of Tendency 4: Collective alternative approaches emphasizing the value
of collective, workplace and community-based lifelong education.
In reality, there have been considerable differences in theoretical orientations within
alternative approaches to training. Without minimizing the significance of these differences, it
is also important to recognize that, in the present context at least, they share a common ground
in developing alternatives to the market-led approach which is so prominent on a global scale.
Market-led approaches focus on increased consumption patterns and material luxury.
However, life ways and consumption patterns of the rich, as indicated by many statistics, are
stressful and unhealthy and can lead to hypertension, stroke, heart disease and cancer. The very
ideal of material luxury is flawed. Clearly, there are more satisfying ways to live the good life.
When all is said and done, the critical factor in choosing our future is the choice we ourselves
make about the way we consume, the way we work, the way we live.
The common adaptive response to uncertainty and complexity is to try to repeat with
greater effort what has been tried. Historically, this is referred to as “maintenance learning”.
Societies have in the past adopted maintenance learning interrupted by short periods of
innovation stimulated by the shock of external events. This learning is the acquisition of fixed
outlooks, methods and rules for dealing with known and recurring situations. It is this type of
learning, built on experience, which is designed to maintain an existing system or an
established way of life. Maintenance learning through experience is, to a great extent,
indispensable to the functioning and stability of every society.
The negative side to this is when we are exposed to the same experience over and over,
we gradually pay less and less attention. This process is called habituation. It is learning not to
pay attention. Habituation is vital in early childhood because it allows us to ignore most
environmental stimuli and to concentrate our attention, and thus is an important prerequisite for
learning. To the extent that people live in familiar environments and experience only very
gradual changes in themselves, habituation may cause them to perceive very little need to
adapt.
Implied in this discussion is the concept of anticipation. Anticipation is the capacity to
face new, possibly unprecedented situations; it is the acid test for innovative learning processes.
Anticipation is the ability to deal with the future, to foresee coming events as well as evaluate
the medium-term and long-term consequences of current decisions and actions. It requires not
only learning from experience but also “experiencing” vicarious or envisioned situations.
Anticipation can reveal, through simulation and scenarios, a wide class of possibilities, and
these possibilities may be future events which can and do influence not only changes in
behavior, but also changes in preparation and purpose.
Within the general process of adaptation, Piaget (1968) identified the two processes of
assimilation and accommodation. Actions that change the environment to better “fit” with the
self represent assimilation. Actions that change the self to better adjust to the environment are
called accommodation. These, simply, are the two ends of the continuum of learning.
Assimilation being information and skills added to that which the individual already possesses.
The transformative end of the continuum referring to changes in the individual’s perceptions
3
and actions.
Information, Knowledge, and Choice Considerations
The basic concept that a given situation has more than one possible outcome and that one’s
own choice can determine which of these is actualized is especially useful. In applying these
ideas one needs to analyze one’s situation, searching actively for alternative interpretations of
it, and alternative responses to it. This involves identifying preconceptions that can blind one to
some of the alternatives.
How do we arrive at our choices? The key is information in the broadest sense.
However, Keith Devlin (1999) says that information is only information, and it is not as some
believe, knowledge. Information can lead to awareness. This awareness then can lead to choice.
To learn or acquire knowledge, this choice must lead to change. One of the simplest definitions
of learning is that it is a process that results in a change of knowledge, attitude and skills.
Knowledge, it has been said, is the application and use of information with the learner giving
information meaning or relevance.
The popular perception of learning is that based upon the transfer of information, i.e., the
learning of new facts within an educational setting. The assumption is made that we know
something when we acquire a fact or piece of information that we then have all that is required
to put that something into action. In an organizational setting, the parallel assumption is that
when a person in an organization is informed of a strategy or plan, that they will then be able to
execute the plan. In an organization what is essential, is the ability to act, not simply to acquire
information, and act in accordance with the goals and requirements of the enterprise. In their
analysis of the causes of military failure, The Anatomy of Military Misfortunes, Cohen and
Gooch (1990) provide a framework for understanding the learning requirements, which are
useful for organizations beyond the military. The framework has been modified here to
describe three kinds of learning:
Learning from Experience is the discipline and patterning required to draw meaning and
lessons from the past as a basis for modifying future performance and evaluating potential
directions. It is used to retain what is useful; to reject what is not, and to change where
necessary. The timeframe is the past.
Learning to Adapt is the development of practices and skills to learn-in-the-midst-of-action,
and involves a very short cycle time for reflection to action. People’s judgement, sensing and
intuitive capabilities are involved in making meaning of rapidly unfolding situations and acting.
The timeframe is the present.
Learning to Anticipate is the art of being receptive to signals about performance, goals and
consequences of action from the environment, especially weak signals, which later may gain
critical importance. Learning to anticipate involves the ability to understand, identify and take
action on the gap between current capabilities and future challenges. It entails learning how to
create effective developmental initiatives to improve performance for as yet unmet
circumstances. The timeframe is the future.
These three kinds of learning are closely interrelated and strength in one can assist another.
The view of learning which emerges from learning from experience, learning to adapt and
learning to anticipate is one that is much more complex and holistic than simply the learning of
new information. In order to strengthen an ability to learn in these three areas and at all levels,
it must make its embedded learning processes increasingly explicit and available to reflection,
review and improvement.
Education usually perceived and defined as a deliberate, systematic presentation of
information. It is frequently a mostly formalized process that gives direction to learning. What
is also the case in education is that educational programs attempt to provide a ready-made
model for organizing and formatting information. The educational programs are presented as
4
universal and able to fit any context, these models lend themselves to unsophisticated
application and ignore the complexities of different environments. The issue is not with the use
of these models as educational tools, but with the uncritical way in which they are presented.
Foundations for a global learning can be more appropriately erected on poststructural
theories of reading reception and on theories of indigenization and cultural translation. Each of
these theories stress heterogeneity and human agency rather than homogeneity and passivity.
They stress the diversity, variety and richness of popular and local cultural practices, which
resist and play with the cultural goods of global capital. In Reading Reception Theory
Doheny-Farina (1996) makes the point that meaning is a collaborative process of negotiation in
which participants interpret and construct the meanings of information in myriad ways.
“Information is a verb, not a noun” he says (p. 24). Poststructuralist reading reception theory
has taught us that a text, any text, is not a single entity with a fixed meaning, but is comprised of
many interpretations.
In everyday life we are constantly interpreting. However, different people live in
different contexts. Concretely this means that we are geographically situated in different places.
It also means that we live in different social circumstances. Furthermore, we are placed in
different cultures and in a specific historical situation. This is fundamental for the kinds of
interpretations we make. These circumstances are also fundamental in terms of learning, in
terms of the challenges that will provoke a change in interpretation of something. Two aspects
of everyday life are prominent because they occupy a large proportion of the time that forms
our lives, namely, working life and the use of mass media.
Titanic changes in the world economy, the rush of new technologies, the acceleration
of communications and information ultimately lead to issues affecting our core notions of
identity, morals, and values. Globalization is not just an economic force. It is not a process
confined to bank accounts, stock markets and multinational corporations. One of the
“globalisms” created is global learning and education, in which distance learning and sharing
of information, enable students and teachers to have access to almost infinite sources of
research and learning.
Knowledge Workers
The newly emerging dominant group in societies is “knowledge workers”. The very term was
unknown forty some years ago. Peter Druckers coined it in his 1959 book, Landmarks of
Tomorrow. A great majority of jobs now require qualifications the industrial worker does not
have and is poorly equipped to acquire. These jobs require a good deal of formal education and
the ability to apply theoretical and analytical knowledge. They require a different approach to
work and a different mindset. Above all they require a habit of continuous learning.
Knowledge workers may not be the majority in the information society, but in many if
not most developed societies they will be the largest single population and work-force group.
And even where outnumbered by other groups, knowledge workers will give the emerging
society its character, its leadership, its social profile.
Knowledge workers, it is true, generally gain access to jobs and social position through
formal education. Education will become the center of the knowledge society, and the school
its key institution. What knowledge must everyone have? What is “quality” in learning? These
will be the central concerns of the knowledge society. I think that I can predict with confidence
that we will redefine what it means to be an educated person. Traditionally, and especially
during the past 300 years, an educated person was somebody who had a prescribed stock of
formal knowledge. Increasingly, an educated person will be somebody who has learned how to
learn, and who continues learning, increasingly by formal education, throughout his or her
lifetime.
5
A Multi-Theory Based Approach
Building on the research by Farmer (1983) in which data were collected from 2,014 adults on
significant developmental, organizational, and/or societal changes and related learning
occurred, Paprock (1992) developed a multi-theory based approach to learning. In designing
adult education research, no single theory base has been found sufficient, in and of itself.
Farmer’s research used several theory bases including (a) social psychology, (b) cognitive
psychology, and (c) structural functionalism. Each of these theory bases contributes
differentially. Used together, they tend to compliment each other.
In using an open system approach, it becomes necessary to look first at outcomes and then
identify what contexts, inputs, and processes are associated with specific outcomes. Doing so
permits focusing on specific changes, which are not defined merely as a function of education
or learning.
In using this as an approach, Farmer’s research and Paprock’s model does not merely
ask “How much adult education and/or adult learning has taken place?” or “How much change
has taken place?” or “Did what was intended take place?” and then concludes that the answers
tell us what type(s) of adult learning are “best”.
Rather, in keeping with a structural-functional perspective, information is used
concerning (a) the functionality of experienced changes as defined by the subject; (b)
associated variables including learning activities; and (c) how the subject sees (a) and (b) to be
related. Moreover, in keeping with a cognitive psychological perspective, information or data
can be collected on the meaningfulness (Ausubel, Novak & Hanesian, 1978) of change and
related learning. No one form or mode of learning is taken to be inherently more meaningful
than other forms and modes of learning.
If one stays within a standard paradigm, such as those developed by, Freire, Houle,
Knowles, or Mezirow, one is unlikely to see how non-standard forms of adult learning
associates with change. Some of the more functional approaches to learning are other than the
standard ones because they may consist of sequences of standard approaches or “hybrids”, in
which elements from two or more standard approaches were used. The following model was
developed adapting the research mentioned above.
The model describes three general forms of meaningful learning related to performance.
Meaningful is defined as learning in which individuals are helped to acquire needed knowledge,
attitude, and skills to help them solve real-life problems that range from well-defined to
ill-defined. It was found that education that was meaningful clustered around three areas of
focus: content, problem-solving, and change and adaptation.
Besides the obvious problem of overwhelming and sometimes not relevant information
in an approach focusing on content, Revans (1983) notes that we all have numerous
acquaintances who know all manner of things without being able to do them. Content laden
education tend to aim at the simple dissemination of a body of information without a
corresponding focus on the application of that information. Here the use is usually at large
gatherings, such as conferences, where the educator has to address a large diversity of needs
and generalizes.
The problem-based focus has gained some popularity especially in the market-led
tendencies. Put simply, this learning is designed to produce learners that have both knowledge
and ability to use that knowledge by providing a context and guidance. Heavy emphasis in this
type of learning is placed on helping students to be self-directed by tackling problems
presented in clinical or real-life settings. Despite its popularity, Rogoff and Lave (1984) and
Lave (1988) found that educators and learners are often less comfortable with problems which
may determine what kinds of responses are adaptive or maladaptive in given situations. On the
positive side, Rogoff and Lave claim that if we wish to prepare learners to adapt and solve
problems they will confront in their lives or in practice, then we must present realistic
6
simulations of real problems, not merely with problems that are tailored to our convenience
because they are objectively scorable, and not problems which have been removed from
context.
These two, the content focused and problem-based approaches, resemble conclusions
from Farmer’s research. The third approach of this multi-theory model focuses first and
foremost on adaptation necessitated by change brought about by human development, changes
in the knowledge base, organizational change, and/or societal change. Adaptation can be in the
form of the need to assimilate – to learn to deal with difficulties without needing to change
one’s theory base, paradigm, or perspective – or – to accommodate – to change one’s theory
base, paradigm or perspective.
This approach requires identifying and prioritizing difficulties and anomalies to be
addressed by adult education. To understand this approach, one must consider situations in
which the person may find himself or herself and their adequacy of dealing with those
situations. Such situations can involve the person personally, vocationally, and/or
avocationally. Regarding the person’s ability to deal with such situations adequately from his
or her own or other’s perspective: (a) some situations provide no difficulty for the person. The
person can deal with those situations using his or her current knowledge, attitudes, and skills.
(b) Some situations provide a person with difficulties. A difficult situation is one in which the
use of one’s current knowledge, attitudes, and skills is almost adequate for dealing with the
situation. To learn to deal with the difficulty, one needs to modify slightly one’s current
knowledge, attitude and skills, but one does not need to modify one’s frame of reference (or
schemata). (c) Some situations, however, are anomalous. An anomaly is a situation with which
one cannot deal adequately without dropping one frame of reference and changing to a
different one which is adequate for use in that situation. To the extent that the content-focus
approach or the difficulty-based approach of the third part of the model are called for in a
situation, various forms of reception learning (i.e., reading, hearing, or observing) tend to be
the instructional treatments of choice. Guided inquiry tends to be the most appropriate way for
a person to learn to deal with anomalous situations.
The Multi-Theory Based Approach to Learning
(The Three Foci Model)
Part I
I.
CONTENT- BASED MODEL
NEED, INTEREST,
AND/OR CONTENT
CHANGE OF
KNOWLEDGE
ATTITUDE, OR SKILL PERFORMANCE
LEARNING
ACTIVITIES
FOCAL POINT
Part II
7
II. PROBLEM-BASED MODEL
RELATED LEARNING
ACTIVITIES
CHANGE OF KNOWLEDGE
ATTITUDE, OR SKILL
SPECIFIC TASK OR
SPECIFIC PROBLEMSOLVING EFFORT
FOCAL POINT
Part III
III. DIFFICULTY AND ANOMALY-BASED MODEL
RELATED LEARNING
ACTIVITIES
CHANGE OF KNOWLEDGE,
ATTITUDE, OR SKILL
PERFORMANCE
(ADAPTATION)
(RECEPTION AND/OR
AUTONOMOUS
LEARNING)
A. DIFFICULTY
(ASSIMILATION)
(GUIDED INQUIRY)
B. ANOMALY
(ACCOMODATION)
FOCAL POINT
Implications for Practice
Adaptive competence is a three-part process: (a) sensing and detecting changing conditions in
the internal and external environment that affect practice; (b) acknowledging the need to alter
or adapt some mode of functioning; and (c) taking steps to initiate or accommodate the changes
required, such as learning new skills (technical), embracing new knowledge (conceptual), or
refocusing practice to meet new market demands (contextual). Thus adaptive competence
allows one to initiate or implement changes either as an individual, professional, or in the
community.
Teaching strategies are typically thought of as clarifying content (subject matter or
information) presented in texts or journals, explaining solutions to problems, demonstrating
principles, providing laboratory exercises, and testing for recall of facts and ability to apply
knowledge to problems. That is, teaching is for assimilation. Accommodation needs to be
seriously considered for future strategies. For teaching aimed at accommodation the following
changes in approach are implied here: (a) Develop teaching methods which can be used to
create cognitive conflict as preparation for accommodation (if one is too comfortable with the
current level of knowledge, attitudes, and skills, then one doesn’t learn). (b) Organize
instruction so there is more time in diagnosing errors in thinking and resistance to change. (c)
Adult educators need strategies that include in their repertoire to deal with errors that interfere
with accommodation. (d) Help learners to make sense of content by representing content in
multiple modes. (e) Help learners see wholes and interrelationships through a systems
approach And (f) Develop evaluation methodologies to help keep track of conceptual change.
8
The Critical Issues
Will the new information technologies create further problems of equity within our
societies? That is, will access to information technologies in general, and for
learning outside the classroom more specifically, be limited to only the rich, to those who can
afford to purchase expensive hardware or time on the system? Will urban centers provide
opportunities for learners to use information technologies, while adults in rural areas are left
with no access to this vast repertoire of information?
These questions of equity are of fundamental importance, for if only the “haves” can
participate in learning through information technologies, then the social, economic, and
cultural gaps in our societies will widen even further, with potentially devastating
consequences.
Who will decide what information resources will be made available through the new
technologies will control what kinds of information learners are able to access? Will this
become a kind of political tool to be used by individuals or agencies as a means of domination?
Let us assume for the moment that information technologies are accessible
To virtually everyone, and that issues of equity and control are largely solvable. First,
will the needed kinds of quality information resources come from? There is so much concern
about the quality of existing materials, particularly educational software. Second, since most
learning outside of the classroom involves adults, where will the good information resources
for use by adults come from? And finally, how will information resources development be
funded?
How are issues of obsolescence of hardware, maintenance of hardware, installation, and so
forth to be handled when attempting to deliver instruction outside the classroom to thousands
of individual learners who are geographically scattered and who will have differing levels of
sophistication with respect to handling technology hardware? Will information technology be
restricted to certain locations?
These are a few of the important issues that must be addressed before information
technologies are likely to enjoy widespread use in learning outside the classroom environments.
The ethical implication of these issues regarding goal setting, targets group participation and
consequences seem clear.
a. In setting the goals for any social intervention, who speaks for the person, group, or
community that is the target of the change effort?
b. In selecting the means for intervention, how does one assure genuine participation in
the process to the people who are the targets?
According to Marja (1995), HRD and lifelong learning have to play two different roles:
one to safeguard the cultural heritage and identity of their people, and the other to train people
to be able to compete in the global market.
Globalization is a human endeavor, a challenge to the way people view the world and
their place in it. The main challenge that globalization presents to us, as individuals and as
societies, is to find a balance between preserving our sense of identity, culture and community
while thriving in the global economy. Governments, families and individuals and us, as adult
educators, must face this challenge.
References
Appleberry, J. B. (1992). Creating learning communities. Paper presented at the conference of
the American Association of State Colleges and Universities on Teach America: Teacher
Preparation for the New American School (pp. 25-27).
Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. D., & Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational psychology: A cognitive
view. New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston.
Barber, B. R. (1996). Jihad vs. McWorld. New York: Ballantine Books.
9
Barnard, M. (1988). Art design and visual culture. London: Macmillan.
Berman, S. I. (1969). Understanding and being understood. San Francisco: International
Society for General Semantics.
Chard, P. (2002). Information overload: Are we technology’s masters... or servants? ACA
Journal, 11(3).
Cohen, E. D. & Gooch, J. (1990). The anatomy of military misfortunes. New York: Free Press.
Davis, S. & Botkin, J. (1994). The monster under the bed. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Debord, G. (1967). The society of the spectacle (K. Knabb Trans.). Baltimore, MD: Black &
Red.
Devlin, K. (1999). Infosense. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Doheny-Farina, S. (1996). The wired neighborhood. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Druckers, P. F., (1959). Landmarks of tomorrow. Somerherst, NJ: Transaction Press.
Duncum, P. & Bracey, T. (Eds.). (2001). On knowing: Art and visual culture. Christchurch,
New Zealand: Canterbury University Press.
ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education. (n.d.). Critical issues bibliography Sheet:
Internationalization of post-secondary education. Retrieved September 19, 2002, from
www.eriche.org/newweb/crib/international.html
Errington, E. (1995). Myth and structure at disney world. In I. Lavin (Ed.), Meaning in the
visual arts: Views from the outside (pp.85-105). Princeton, NJ: Institute for Advanced
Studies.
Farmer, J. A. (1983). Continuing medical education: Measurement issues on trial. Paper
presented at the conference of the American Association of Medical Colleges on research
in Medical Education, Washington, D.C.
Ferkiss, V. ( 2000, February, 19). Globalization – myth, reality, problems. America, p. 4.
Lave, J. (1988). Cogntion in practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Marja, T. (1995, November). The role of education in restoring the democratic society: A
baltic case. Paper presented at the International Conference on Adult Education and
Training: Its Role in Reconstruction and Development, Cape Town, SA.
Mayo, M. (1997). Imagining tomorrow: Adult education for transformation. Leicester, UK:
National Institute of Adult Continuing Education (NIACE).
Paprock, K. E. (1992). Response ability versus the cult of coverage. Paper presented at the
National Conference on Creating the Quality School. Norman, OK: University of
Oklahoma.
Piaget, J. (1968). Six psychological studies. New York: Basic Books.
Revans, R. W. (1983). Action learning: The forces of achievement, or getting it done.
Management Decisions, 21 (3), 44-54.
Rogoff, B. & Lave, J. (1984). Everyday cognition: Its development in social context.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Russell, P. (1998). Waking up in time. Novato, California: Origin Press.
10