Community buzz: conservation of native bees in
urban areas
Tara Cornelisse, Mark Weckel, and Andrew Collins
Part 1 - Introduction to Urban Conservation
“The world is increasingly urban, interconnected, and changing. If current trends
continue, by 2050 the global urban population is estimated to be 6.3 billion, nearly
doubling the 3.5 billion urban dwellers worldwide in 2010. More than 60 percent of the
area projected to be urban in 2030 has yet to be built.”
- Cities and Biodiversity Outlook (2012)
What does the growth of cities mean for the conservation of biodiversity internationally?
Is there a place for conservation within cities? And if so, what does urban conservation
look like? These are very important questions currently being played out on a global
scale. Cities are projected to grow. This larger urban footprint will have far-reaching
impacts, well beyond city limits. The size of this footprint, the impact of cities on the
globe, and the quality of life for urbanites all depend on the emergence of an urban
conservation movement. Urban areas are growing rapidly especially in close proximity
to biodiversity hotspots and in species-rich coastal areas (Figure 1, CBD 2012).
Figure 1. Projected urban population growth in biodiversity hotspots.
Even protected areas are impacted by urbanization at its borders as cities alter
microclimate, increase local temperatures, and alter hydrology (Bolund and
Humhammar 1999), all of which change the local ecology. A larger and closer urban
populace will place higher demands for resources, which may incentivize both legal and
illegal natural resource extraction from hotspot regions, further threatening species with
extinction. Furthermore, the price of land adjacent to preserves will increase, making it
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more difficult to add land to nature preserves and buffer hotspots from the cityscape as
it becomes economically more attractive to develop than land.
By destroying natural areas, including wetlands and forested habitat, its clear that the
creation and growth of cities imposes major and often irreversible changes to the
landscape and its biodiversity. Nevertheless, it may still be helpful to look at cities as
ecosystems, albeit ones dominated by humans. The built environment is the defining
characteristic of cities, yet more than just remnants of its original biodiversity exist. In
fact, many cities are located where they are often because of the original biological
diversity and productivity of the land. Cities were, and still are, established in areas with
navigable waterways and abundant natural resources.
Cities are a patchwork of human, or anthropogenic habitat (residential, commercial,
industrial zones) and “greenspace” (recreational parkland, remnant woodlots, and postindustrial waste places). The biodiversity that emerges “post-urbanization” is a result of
the interaction between humans, their industry, trade, culture and travel, and traditional
environmental factors we often consider in explaining patterns of biodiversity.
As centers of trade and transport, cities are gateways for establishment of exotic
species, a serious conservation and economic challenge (Kiviat and Johnson 2013). Yet
on average, 70% and 94% of plant and bird species are native to the region. The result
is a ecosystem with a mix of native and non-native species alike. At the same time,
there are certain cosmopolitan flora and fauna found in many cities around the world
suggesting that urban development may have a homogenizing impact on biodiversity
(CBD 2012). Yet urban biodiversity is not uniform throughout a city or over time. For
example, older cities have more species than younger ones and wealthier
neighborhoods have more floral diversity than poorer ones (CBD 2012).
Much of the urban biodiversity is vital to a resilient, productive city. Many city managers
are now realizing that the stability of the “human-side” of cities from neighborhoods to
economic development of commercial districts benefits from conservation investment
and the construction of green infrastructure (e.g. green roofs, bioswales, parkland). For
example, with global climate change resulting in rising sea levels and more frequent,
stronger storms, landscape architects are proposing and manufacturing living coastal
reefs (Figure 2). Coral reefs protect protect shoreline infrastructure by reducing wave
energy and buffering storm surges while simultaneously promoting sea life habitat and
increased recreational opportunities (Moberg and Folke 1999).
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Figure 2. Protective coastal reef.
Ultimately, with an increasingly urban future, the protection of biodiversity and
maximizing human health and well-being - both within and beyond cities - call for cities
to place a priority on conservation within cities and developing new cities with
conservation objectives in mind.
Questions:
1. How does urban conservation differ from traditional conservation?
2. Why is urban conservation important to a global conservation effort?
3. Researchers often speak of the ecology of cities, framing the urban landscape as
a socio-ecological system.
a. Identify some of the social and ecological components of a city.
b. Is there a difference between the statements, “nature of cities” and “nature
in cities?” Defend your answer.
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Does an urban forest make for a better New
York City?
Since 2007, over 200,000 street trees have been planted
in New York City through the MillionTreesNYC (MTNYC)
campaign of PlaNYC, an initiative to build a greener,
more sustainable city by 2030.
In New York City, 25% of the land has been set aside for
parks and open space (PlaNYC 2011). Concrete and
pavement, buildings and roads, however, dominate the rest.
Roads and roofs are dark and dry, absorbing most of the
sun’s rays and warming the surrounding air through the process of conduction.
Figure 3. Tree-lined Street
The result is the creation of an urban heat island where local temperatures are 1 to 3°C
higher than to the adjacent suburban and rural areas (Akbari 2005). Vegetation,
including street trees (Figure 3), can mitigate this warming by changing the microclimate
of entire neighborhoods. Through direct shading and the process of evapotranspiration,
plants can greatly cool the surrounding air (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Average temperatures in landscapes with varying vegetation cover.
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Trees can also influence the microclimate by reducing wind speeds. While single trees
have a limited impact, in a residential area of Pennsylvania with 67% tree cover, trees
reduced wind speed by 60% during the winter (Heiser 1990). By blocking cold winter
winds, an urban forest can help homeowners and landlords reducing heating costs.
However, care must be paid to where said trees are planted. Planting a tree that blocks
the winter sun, but none of the winter wind can actually increase heating costs in the
winter (McPherson 1987, Nowak 2007).
Street trees have a variety of ecological, economic, and social benefits for cities beyond
regulating the microclimate. During a rainstorm, a single large tree can temporarily
capture up to 100 gallons of water via its leaves and trunk alone (Fazio 2010), known as
the “umbrella effect”. In NYC, this is a huge service since the city’s combined sewer
overflow (CSO) system does not distinguish between rainwater and sewage. In some
neighborhoods of NYC, water treatment facilities become overloaded after as little as
1/10 of inch rain per hour (Riverkeeper). At this point, a mixture of raw sewage and
clean rain water bypasses treatment plants and are dumped directly into our local
waterways reducing water quality, damaging fisheries, and closing beaches. Over 27
billion gallons of untreated sewage enters NYC waters from CSOs annually (Figure 5,
Riverkeeper).
Figure 5. Waste and storm water flow in New York City.
Street trees may also contribute to cleaner, health air by intercepting particulate matter
via leaves and bark and by absorbing gaseous compounds through their stomata (Pugh
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et al. 2012). Urban trees have been shown to greatly reduce several compounds
associated with lower air quality including ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur
dioxide (SO2) (Figure 6). Interestly though it is possible for trees to temporarily reduce
air quality, by slowing wind speeds and trapping pollutants from idling cars below.
Figure 6. Removal of pollutants increases during the vegetation growing season.
The ability of trees to reduce particulate matter has been hypothesized to reduce the
incidence of asthma in children. In fact, a 2008 study conducted in NYC compared rates
of asthma across different neighborhoods that varied in street tree density and found
lower incidences of childhood asthma in neighborhoods with more street trees (Lovasi
et al. 2008). However, a follow-up study in NYC using a finer-scale of sampling and
looking at the relationships between asthma and overall tree canopy (from parks,
gardens, and street trees) failed to see any correlation (Lovasi et al. 2013). On the
contrary, there was some evidence that increased canopy cover was positively
associated with allergic sensitization to tree pollen. How and if street trees contribute to
a healthy citizenry is up to debate.
In many neighborhoods where there are few parks and private gardens, street trees
may be the dominant vegetation. Here, trees greatly increase biodiversity both directly
and indirectly by providing habitat to a variety of birds and insects. And where tree
corridors connect parks, trees may actually serve wildlife or ecological corridors,
providing connectivity between green spaces (Fernadez-Juric 2000). With that said,
increased tree diversity need not be native. Many non-native trees are planted in tree
pits for their ability to survive the challenging environment of the sidewalk. One of those
trees is the Norway maple which several decades ago was widely planted as an urban
street tree. Norway maples “escaped” their urban environment and can be found in
many urban, suburban, and rural forests (Harrington et al. 2003). Owing to its ability to
outcompete native red and sugar maples, Norway maple is generally viewed as
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invasive and the subject of intense management (Nowak and Rowntree, 1990). Today,
in NYC, no invasive or potentially invasive plants can be used as street trees and a
minimum of 30% of all trees used should be native (NYC Green Codes Task Force).
Beyond biodiversity, street trees are believed to play an unexpected foresting
community empowerment and are even associated with lowered crime rates. Studies
have suggested that areas of well-maintained vegetation are indicators of civic
engagement and time spent outside by community members (Coley, Kuo, and Sullivan
1997). Some have suggested that well maintained street vegetation might actually
reduce crime by serving as a signal to criminals that someone cares and is watching
over the neighborhood (Brown and Bentley 1993). Supporting this idea, in Baltimore
County, MD, increased urban tree canopies were overall correlated with lower crime
rates (Troy et al.2012). However, the the relationship between vegetation and crime and
perceived crime risk is not simple. In the same Baltimore study, Troy et al. (2012) also
identified neighborhoods where the trend was reversed: more vegetation, more crime. A
mixture of industrial and residential housing characterized these neighborhoods where
abandoned lots, characterized by weedy, overgrown, and unattended vegetation was
common (Troy et al. 2012). As with areas that are completely free of vegetation, areas
with unkempt, weedy vegetation can too be viewed as “no-mans land” (Fisher & Nasar
1992; Nasar et al. 1993).The relationship between street trees, crime, civic engagement
is all very much connected to the point that attributing cause and effect is very
challenging.
While street trees can benefit both individuals and entire communities, it is important to
consider that street trees are not planted everywhere and may not always be viewed as
beneficial. A single street tree most directly impacts the person, or peoples (in the case
of apartments) who live where the tree is planted! Sounds simple, but its’ really not. If a
tree is planted on a public sidewalk in front of your home, to whom does the street tree
belong to? Who is responsible for the tree? Who benefits? Who might be negatively
impacted? Care must be taken to make sure a tree has room to grow, is healthy, and is
properly pruned. An old big tree can buckle sidewalks, a concern for the elderly and the
young. Roots from a tree with too small of a tree pit can seek out water well beyond its
crown and in the process weaken the foundation of buildings and damage pipes. A sick
tree or one that is improperly pruned can cause harm to persons or property from falling
weakened limbs, and as roots grow in the direction of water (Rae et al. 2011).
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Questions:
1. What are some benefits and drawbacks of planting urban street trees? Fill in
Table 1: From the reading identify 10 ways street trees can impact a city. For
each one, identify whether its impact is social, ecological, or economic. Indicate if
the impact is a pro (favors street trees), a con (against street trees) or both.
2. The word stakeholder is used to identify “any individual, group, or institution that
has a vested interest in the natural resources of a project area and/or who
potentially will be affected by project activities and have something to gain or lose
if conditions change or stay the same.” Based on your analysis from Question 1,
identify three stakeholders and explain how they might be harmed or benefited
by an urban tree project.
Table 1.
Ex. Reduce Air Pollutants
Social
Ecological Economic Pro/Con/B
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PART 2 - Urban Bee Conservation
Of all the insects, bees are the most widely recognized for their contribution to human
well being. Bees are part of the insect order Hymenoptera, which also includes ants and
wasps. When you think of “bees” you probably think immediately of “honey bees” (Apis
mellifera), but in fact honeybees are only one species of over 20,000 species of bees
and, in the United States, have only been residents since the early 1600s, as they are
native to Europe. On the other hand, there are more than 4,000 species of native bees
in the United States and over 200 in New York City.
All bees are important pollinators but honeybees, as their name suggests, also produce
honey and are the most economically important species of bee. Honeybees are social
insects that live in hives, making them easier to keep, while the majority of native bees
are solitary- meaning they do not live in hives, but as individuals. Honeybees are
responsible for pollinating more than 90 crops worldwide and their services are
estimated to be worth nearly $15 billion (USDA). Urban beekeeping for honey
production has increased in popularity in recent years in cities around the United States,
including New York City.
Native bees are bees that are indigenous or naturalized to an area. Unlike honeybees,
however, native bees are not amenable to keeping in beehives, nor do they make
honey; yet, they are extremely ecologically and economically important. Native bees
pollinate and are responsible for the reproduction of 70% of the world’s flowering plants,
including 2/3rds of crop species, and worth about $3 billion (The Xerces Society). In
fact, native bees pollinate the majority of plants in urban gardens (Matteson 2008) and
are 2-3 times more productive at pollinating New York State apple orchards than honey
bees (Park et al. 2012). Native bees come in many forms and vary from all black to
metallic blue and some have stripes of red, orange, yellow, or white. Some common
names of native bees are bumble bees, carpenter bees, mason bees, plaster bees,
leafcutter bees, and digger bees. For a guide and photos of many native bees, go here
http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?guide=Bee_genera and click on the names of the
bee genera on the left.
Both honey bees and native bees are threatened due to human activities. Honey bees
are primarily threatened by Colony Collapse Disorder, which, as current knowledge
indicates, is caused by a combination of disease, parasites, and pesticides (Lu et al.
2014). Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) has resulted in both widespread
acknowledgements that honeybees are responsible for pollinating the majority of our
food and fear that CCD will result in reduced food supply (Wines 2013); but CCD has
also resulted in the recognition of native bees as important pollinators (Madrigal 2009,
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Mims 2009). While not threatened by CCD, native bees are in trouble because of loss of
habitat, particularly in urban areas.
Urban native bees need our help. Native bees need floral resources, nesting sites (e.g.
wood piles, rock piles, logs), and overwintering sites (e.g. logs, bee “houses”) to survive
in urban areas and these resources have been declining with loss of green spaces and
homogenization of urban biodiversity, especially of plants (Jha and Kremen 2013).
However, there are many ways people can create native bee habitat in their yards or
community parks and gardens by planting a diversity of flowering plants as well as
providing breeding and overwintering habitats, such as logs or even “bee houses”.
There are even manuals that have been developed to assist those in construction of
effective native bee habitat (e.g. http://www.xerces.org/wp-content
/uploads/2008/10/nests_for_native_bees1.pdf). With increased habitat for native bees,
they have a chance to survive and even thrive in urban areas, further increasing insect
and plant diversity and providing pollination services.
Town Hall Exercise: Native Bee Conservation
Town Hall prompt: Now it’s your turn to make an important conservation decision! You
will take part in a Town Hall discussion and vote on a proposed conservation project for
your community. As one of the community members, you must think your personal and
professional goals to the table while also weighing the social, economic, and ecological
factors involved.
The Situation: Your neighborhood in New York City has been given a national
stewardship grant to fund a local habitat conservation project for native bees. As a
member of the community, you have your own opinion on this project and will help vote
on whether or not the project gets approved. A town hall meeting is being held and you
must bring your thoughts to the table to share with others and come together in order to
make final decision. Your teacher will assign you a community member role. Read the
description and perform a bit of additional research in order to prepare yourself for the
town hall meeting.
Instructions: You will receive a role and the goals for that individual (anecdote), your
job is to read this and then do additional research to form your argument (see written
prompts below to be filled out).
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Preparation for the Town Hall:
1. Given your role, what factors are most influential in your argument around bee
habitat creation, after performing additional research:
a. Fill in Table 2 by ranking each factor 1-10, with 1 being the most
important factor (to you, as your role) when deciding to take the grant and
create native bee habitat. Put the number in the concern category (social,
ecological, economic) you think best represents each factor. If needed,
add factors and rank accordingly (add 1 factor, rank 1-11, etc.). Indicate if
the impact is a Pro (favors bee habitat) or a Con (against bee habitat).
2. What is your final decision?
a. List the three most important arguments in favor of your position and
provide evidence for why they are the most important.
Table 2.
Factor
Social
Ecological
Economic
Pro/Con/B
Bees provide pollination
Bees increase overall biodiversity
Bees require flowers for food- there
will be more flowers
Bees require shrubs for over
wintering- there will be more shrubs
Bee breeding habitat- there will be
more logs and rock piles
Bees require reduced pesticide
application- will be less pesticides
Some bees can sting if threatened
Increased plant diversity can reduce
pollution
Increased plant diversity can
increase allergens
Honey Bees produce honey
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Roles:
Bee scientists/Conservation biologist
● Considers Native/non-native species conservation
This project will provide important habitat for native bee species and many other
insects. I believe that we need to focus on creating more green space for urban animals
as an increase in species diversity is not only important for conservation purposes, but
also for the lives of city residents. Their pollination services are economically important
and can help bolster the productivity of the natural systems that we rely on for our
health and well being.
Beekeeper
● Concerned about Honey bee colony collapse
I’ve been keeping bees in this neighborhood for almost 10 years now. I know the
dangers of raising bees in urban areas without habitat for them to forage and stay
healthy. I think this project will benefit native bees and those I am raising, and overall
will keep our park spaces healthy and resilient for the future. I understand people have
fears of bees, but if we provide educational resources and workshops for the community
that teach safety in the presence of bees … I think we solve some of these health
concerns and avoid major incidents.
Parks manager
● Every year sprays the swing set/jungle gym/park with pesticides for hornets and
mosquitos- so would have to reduce that so as not to kill the bees
As a keeper of the park, I have to balance my actions on making it safe for residents
and keeping it a healthy space for nature. Normally I need to spray pesticides in order to
control the harmful species like hornets and mosquitos, but if the new habitat is built … I
should cut back on this as to not kill any of the native bees we are hoping to introduce.
Maintaining this new habitat will also require more of my time. Does the city have the
finances to pay for this or will they be able to hire an additional park staff?
Concerned parent
● Has a child with bee allergy
I’m worried about the health impacts of creating this habitat for native insects. If we’re
introducing more native bees and wasps to the park, this can harm our children and
senior citizens who are most susceptible to stings. My 6-year-old daughter is extremely
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allergic to bees and she loves this park. Am I supposed to tell her she can’t play here
anymore? I want to know how you can protect all children if this grant goes through.
Neighborhood resident
● Worried about increased unruliness
We spent years cleaning up this neighborhood and now have a safe park that kids can
play in and families can enjoy. I’m not sure why we would want to bring in a potentially
harmful species and more so, create bushes and other habitat spaces that crowd up the
park and give us less space to enjoy. These areas collect trash and provide areas for
drug use and other activities that are harmful for our neighborhood.
Local government representative for that neighborhood
● Wants to mediate and take into account all opinions, has economic concerns
As an elected representative for this neighborhood, it’s my duty to take into account the
opinions and needs of all residents. I value both the social and biological health of our
neighborhood, and am ready to weigh all factors involved in this decision. My main
concern is making sure everyone gets a chance to speak and that this town hall
meeting runs smoothly and democratically.
Post Town Hall Analysis
1. After participating in the town hall, how did you thoughts and original arguments
change, specifically:
a. Re-evaluate and change the rankings in Table 3
i.
What did you change and why?
2. Tally the whole class rankings in both Tables 2 and 3, how did the factor rankings
change? The concern categories? Did factor change from pro to con or vice
versa?
3. What additional information would assist you in making an informed decision?
Fill in Table 3 by ranking each factor 1-10, with 1 being the most important factor (to
you, as your role, after the town hall) when deciding to take the grant and create native
bee habitat. Put the number in the concern category (social, ecological, economic) you
think best represents each factor. If needed, add factors and rank accordingly (add 1
factor, rank 1-11, etc.). Indicate if the impact is a Pro (favors bee habitat) or a Con
(against bee habitat).
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Table 3.
Factor
Social
Ecological
Economic
Pro/Con/B
Bees provide pollination
Bees increase overall biodiversity
Bees require flowers for food- there
will be more flowers
Bees require shrubs for over
wintering- there will be more shrubs
Bee breeding habitat- there will be
more logs and rock piles
Bees require reduced pesticide
application- will be less pesticides
Some bees can sting if threatened
Increased plant diversity can reduce
pollution
Increased plant diversity can
increase allergens
Honey Bees produce honey
Discussion:
1. Do you feel each side received equal consideration? Does it matter? Why?
2. How were social, ecological, and economic issues considered?
3. What did you vote for and why?
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