APUSH Chapters 1011 Review Guide
Table of Contents
Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42
Chapter 10 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
Chapter 10 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-37
Chapter 10 Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-41
Chapter 10 Asides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-42
Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-69
Chapter 11 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-58
Chapter 11 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-64
Chapter 11 Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-67
Chapter 11 Asides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-69
1
CHAPTER 10 OUTLINE
Pgs. 255-257

Setting the Stage
o

South did not urbanize while north industrialized
The American Population, 1820-1840
o
population increased rapidly and movement towards cities in the north and northwest
o
grew more rapidly than Europe because of better public health
o
low mortality rate and high birth rate, mothers on average had 6.15 kids
o
many more kids lived to adulthood
o
-low immigration in first decades but boomed later on due to lower transportation cost
and economic opportunities

o
huge surge of Irish Catholics
o
agriculture wore out in northeast, causing movement to NE cities or the west
o
NY grew large from its harbor position
Immigration and Urban Growth, 1840-1860
o
26% of people in free states lived in cities or towns
o
in south urban population only grew from 6-14% (1840-1860)
o
western agriculture supported urban growth
o
Cincinnati, St. Louis, Pitt, Louisville grew off Mississippi River
o
shipping lanes in Great Lakes: Detroit, Chicago, Buffalo, and Cleveland
o
total population grew from 23 to 31 million in 1850s
o
population larger than Great Britain and rivalling Germany and France
2
Pgs. 259, 262-263

Surging Immigration and German and Irish Immigrants
o
Many immigrants from Europe from 1840-1850 made the trip to the American country.

Cities such as New York, St. Louis, Chicago, and Milwaukee received a great deal
of immigrants

o
Few immigrants went to the South
An overwhelming amount of these immigrants came from Germany and Ireland.

People came from Germany because of the “economic dislocations” from the
industrial revolution. These issues caused a great deal of poverty in the country.

The collapse of the liberal revolution in 1848 was another reason to emigrate.

Many of the German immigrants settled in the Northwest where they became
farmers or went into business.

o
Many Irish came from their country because of the Irish potato famine from
1845-1849.

The Irish immigrants arrived with almost nothing so they settled in the eastern
areas and they made the amount of unskilled laborers go up.

The Rise of Nativism
o
Some of the native born Americans welcomed the new amount of immigrants because
the immigrants provided cheap labor.
o
Political leaders in the West also wanted to bring in new immigrants to swell their
population and increase their influence in the region.

Wisconsin permitted foreign born residents to become voters as soon as they
had declared their intention of seeking citizenship and had lived in the state for
a year.
3

o
Other western states followed its lead.
Other Americans formed the idea of “nativism,” a defense of native born people and a
hostility towards the foreign born people. They wished to slow or stop the immigration
process.

Many nativists argued that the immigrants were inferior to native born
Americans. Some even compared the immigrants to the slaves of the country.

Nativists also believed that foreigners were unable to live next to “older stock”
people.

Workers were angered because the immigrants were stealing jobs from hard
working Americans natives.

Protestants were wary of the influence of the Irish Catholics in America and
warned of the growing influence of the pope in the country.

Whigs were enraged because of the great amount of Democratic votes received
from the immigrants. They also feared the immigrants would bring radical ideas
to American politics.
o
Secret Societies began to emerge to combat what they called the “alien menace”.
Nativists formed the Native American Party in 1845 and other nativists formed the
Supreme Order of the Star Spangled Banner in 1850.

The Supreme Order promoted a list of demands that banned Catholics or
foreign-born people from holding public office, more restrictive naturalization
laws, and literacy tests for voting.
o
The “Know Nothings” also emerged in this time and these were people who were part
of the Supreme Order and they used the password “I know nothing” to get into the
secret lodges.
4
o
Know Nothings directed their attention to the elections of 1854 and formed a political
party known as the American Party.
o
They had a great deal of success in the East and took control of the state government in
Massachusetts but after 1854 their power declined.

Transportation, Communications, and Technology
o
Progress in the transportation area would allow the United States to improve
communication and trade across the expanding country.
o
The Canal Age

During the turnpike era (1790-1820s), Americans relied on the newly built roads
to commute across the country.

Americans sought a new pathway to travel and trade and they found an answer:
canals.

The larger rivers in the region had been important transportation routes for
years but they provided problems for flat barges.

The emergence of steamboats allowed for people to travel upstream and trade
increased greatly. New Orleans became a very important trade center for the
United States.
Pgs. 264-266

The Canal Age
o
Need for canals because farmers from West paid more to transfer goods and people in
East paid more to purchase them.
o
Canals would allow farmers to send goods cheaper and therefore let Eastern consumers
buy them for cheaper.
5
o
Although sending goods via highways on the ground worked better, the price was still
too high to ship some necessary goods.

Canals
o
4 horses could haul one and a half tons of goods 18 miles a day on the turnpikes.
o
Same 4 horses walking along towpaths of canals could draw a boatload of 100 tons 24
miles per day.

o
Canal building left to the states because it was too expensive for private businesses.

o
This opportunity granted interest in canal building.
First state to act was New York.
Erie Canal

Approved by governed De Witt Clinton in 1817, digging began on July 4, 1817.

Great success, tolls covered the cost to build in 7 years.

Opened up trade between East and emerging western cities.

Led several other Eastern cities to attempt to build canals to keep up with New
York.

The Early Railroads
o
Railroads emerged even before the height of the canal age.
o
Result of several inventions
o

Invention of tracks

Steam powered locomotives

Railroad cars that could hold either passengers or freight.
In 1804, John Stevens ran a locomotive and cars around a circular track at his New
Jersey Estate.
6
o
In 1825, the Stockton and Darlington Railroad Company in England opened a small track
and started to carry general traffic.

Interest grows in the new idea
o
Interest especially grows in Northeastern cities who desire to communicate with the
West.
o
Baltimore and Ohio ran train through a 13 mile stretch in 1830, the first company to
begin operations in America

o

Mohawk and Hudson ran trains between Schenectady and Albany in 1831
More than 1000 miles of track in 11 states by 1836
Issues with the Railroads
o
Usually only used to connect two water routes
o
Different lines often were different widths so cars from one line couldn’t fit into another
o
Schedules were erratic, so wrecks were frequent

o
Led to a competition between canals and Railroads
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company blocked the expansion of the Baltimore and Ohio
railroad
o
The state of New York prohibited railroads from hauling freight in completion with the
Erie Canal and its branches

The Triumphs of the Rails
o
After 1840, railroads were dominant modes of transport.

2818 miles of track in 1840; 9021 miles of track in 1840

Northeast had twice the amount of track as west and four times that of the
south

Consolidation- Connecting shorter lines to become smaller lines.
7

Railroads took West’s dependence on the Mississippi River away, wherefore
weakening their connection with the south.

Funding of the Railroads
o
Paid for by private investors, states, counties, cities, and towns, all eager to have
railroads serve them
o
Federal government provided assistance in the form of public land grants
o
Stephen Douglas convinced Congress to grant federal lands to aid the Illinois Central
build a railroad from Chicago the Gulf of Mexico
o

By 1860, Congress gave over 30 million acres to 11 states to assist railroad construction
Innovations in Communications and Journalism
o
Telegraph was critical to the railroad

o
Placed along the tracks, connecting one station to another
The telegraph.

Tied the nation together but also reinforced the schism between the north and
south

Telegraph lines far more common in the north than the south

Created by Samuel Morse, who sent a message from Baltimore to DC about the
nomination of Polk


More than 50000 miles of wire by 1860

Pacific telegraph between New York and San Francisco

Formed one big company, the Western Union Telegraph Company
New forms of Journalism
o
In 1846, Richard Hoe invented the steam cylinder rotary press, which allowed
newspapers to be mass produced
8
o
In 1846, newspapers around the nation formed the Associated Press to promote
cooperative news gathering by wire.
o
o
Newspaper sprouted in Northeast

Horace Greeley’s Tribune

James Gordon’s Herald

Henry Raymond’s Times
Gave attention to national and international events.
Pgs. 268-270

Commerce and Industry
o
By the middle years of the 19th century, the U.S. had developed the beginnings of a
modern capitalist economy and advanced industrial capacity

o
Create large wealth in all areas of the country
o
Some classes benefitted more than others
The Expansion of Business 1820-1840
o
American business grew rapidly partly because of the population growth and
transportation revolution
o
Also because of daring/imaginative generation of entrepreneurs whose wealth allowed
for lifestyles of “conspicuous consumption”
o
o
Important change to retail distribution of goods

Ex: large cities: stores specialized in groceries, dry goods, and hardware

Small towns: depended on general stores (no specialized)
Organization of business also changing:

Individuals/partnerships continued to operate most businesses
9
o
Dominate figures = North East Merchants
o
Some larger businesses however were made corporations or individual ownership
o

Corporations began to develop rapidly in the 1830s

After legal obstacles were removed

1830s: states began to pass general incorporation laws

Made it simpler/easier to secure a charter for a corporation
New laws also permitted system of limited liability

Meant stockholders risked only the value of their investments if the corp.
should go down
o
o

They were not liable for the corp.’s larger losses as they were in the past

Rise in new corps. Made it possible to accumulate greater amounts of funds

Allowed for larger manufacturing and business enterprises
Investment alone still couldn’t meet the demand of the most ambitious businesses

Relied on credit, which created dangerous instability

Credit mechanics remained very crude

Government alone could issue official currency

Thus too little of it to support growing demand of credit
Under pressure of corporations, many banks began to issue large amounts of bank notes

Unofficial currency and was very unstable

These bank notes had only the value to the degree that the bank could maintain
public confidence in its value

o
As a result bank failures were frequent and bank deposits were insecure
The difficulty of obtaining credit for business investments remained an impediment to
economic growth
10

The Emergence of the Factory
o
most profound development in the mid-19th century
o
Before the War of 1812, cottage industry was responsible for most of the manufacturing
o
gradually improved technology and increasing demand produced a fundamental change
o
First came to the New England textile industry

their larger machines were employed with the help of water power

allowed them to bring textile operations together under one roof

caused the factory system to spread rapidly in the 1820s

destroyed the cottage industry
o
factories also penetrated the shoe industry — centralized in E Massachusetts
o
Shoes were still largely handmade at this point
o
manufacturers began to employ specialized workers in one or another of the various
tastes involved in production
o
some factories began producing large quantities of identical shoes



undetermined size and without distinction of Left or Right
1830s
o
factory production spreading from the textiles and shoes into other industries
o
also out of New England but also other areas of the North East
1840-1860
o
dramatic growth of American industry as a result of that
o
by 1860 the value of manufactured goods was approximately equal to that of the
agricultural products for the first time
o
the vast majority of the factories were located in the North East

2/3 of the nations manufactured goods
11

72% of the manufactured workers in the U.S. were in the North East and MidAtlantic states

Advances of Technology
o
even the most highly developed industries were still immature by later standards

ex: cotton — U.S. produced coarse grade goods, while Great Britain produced
fine items

however, machine technology advanced more rapidly in the U.S than any other
country

o
economy growing so rapidly rewards of technological innovations were so great
by 1830s: American technology was so advanced (particularly in textiles) that
industrialists from Great Britain and Europe traveled to the U.S. to learn new techniques
o
the manufacturing of machine tools (tools to make machine parts) was an important
contribution
o
research and development was backed by the government and often in connection with
the military


ex: Government Armory in Springfield, Mass. developed two important tools

1) turret lathe: used for cutting metal parts

2) universal milling machine: replaced hand chiseling of parts
precision grind machine designed to help Army produce standard rifles in the
1850s

Federal Armories became the breeding ground for technological discovers

magnet for craftsmen/factory owners looking for ideas they could use
o
By 1840s machine tools in the North East were better than most in Europe
o
Interchangeable parts: introduced in other industries
12

created by Eli Whitney and Simeon North to gun factories

would revolutionize watch/clock making, manufacturing of locomotives/steam
engines, and making of many farm tools

o
paved the way for the eventual automobile
new sources of energy introduced

coal replacing wood and water as fuel for factories

mined around Pittsburgh and West Pennsylvania

made it possible to locate mills away from running streams and thus permitted
industry to expand more widely
o
American investors responsible of great technological advances
o
1830: 544 patented inventions — 1860: 4,778

ex: 1839, Charles Goodyear, a New England hardware merchant, discovered a
method of vulcanizing rubber
o
by 1860 there were over 500 that had helped to create the major American Rubber
industry
o
1846: Elias Howe constructed a sewing machine, which Isaac Singer improved

the Howe-Singer machine was soon being used to manufacture ready to wear
clothing

Even with all the advancement, most of the American industry still relied on water power
(1820s)
o
the 1st important factories in New England towns emerged where they did because they
were able to harness the power of natural waterfalls that could be channeled
o
sometimes factories had to close in the winter because the rivers froze
13

this was one reason factory owners began to look for an alternative source of
power

led them (late 1830s) to rely more on steam power and other transportable
sources — wood and coal

Men and Women at Work:
o
manufacturers relied on the support of labor despite the advances in technology
o
1820s and 30s: factory labor was primarily native born population
o
1840s: immigrant population became an important source of workers
o

Recruiting A Native Workforce: not an easy task

90% of Americans in the 1820s still lived/worked on farms

urban residents:

many skilled workers who have good and stable jobs

unskilled workers: not numerous enough
beginnings of an industrial labor supply came from the transformation of agriculture in
the 19th century (3 things)

opening of vast and fertile farmlands in the Midwest

improvements in transportation

development of new farm machinery


all combined to increase food production dramatically
new farming methods were less labor intensive and required less workers in the
West than in the less fertile North East

no longer did each region have to feed itself entirely from its own farms

as a result farmers in infertile East began to abandon the relatively
unprofitable industry
14

In the North East, especially New England, where poor lands had always placed
harsh limits on productivity, rural people began leaving the land to work in the
factories
Pgs. 271, 276-77

Recruiting a Native Workforce
o
In the 1820’s, 90% of Americans lived and worked on farms who weren’t likely to choose
to work in factories
o
Food production drastically increased due to the opening of fertile new farmlands in the
Midwest, the improvement of transportation systems, and the development of new
farm machinery
o
Regions no longer had to feed themselves from their own farms, but could instead
import food from other regions.
o
This allowed farmers in the Northeast to leave their relatively unprofitable farming
areas and work in factories
o
There were 2 systems of recruitment to bring the new labor supply to the expanding
textile mills

Bring whole families from the farm to the mill

Enlist young women

This was known as the Lowell or Waltham System
o
Labor conditions in the early years of the factory system were relatively good
o
Women who were in the Lowell System lived in clean boardinghouses and dormitories,
were well fed and carefully supervised, were paid wages that were generous by the
standards of the time, and were given sufficient free time.
15

Women had enough time to write and publish a monthly magazine: the Lowell
Offering
o
Despite relatively good working conditions, workers found the transition from farm life
to factory work difficult
o
The Lowell System did survive long
o
Manufacturers found it difficult to maintain the high living standards and the attractive
working conditions they started with in the competitive textile market

Wages declined, the work hours increased, and the conditions of
boardinghouses deteriorated

The mill workers in Lowell organized a union in 1834 called the Factory Girls
Association

This union staged a strike to protest a 25% wage cut

Two years later, this union struck against a rent increase in the boardinghouses

Both of these strikes failed and a recession in 1837 virtually destroyed the
organization
o
8 years later, the militant Sarah Bagley led the Lowell women and created the Female
Labor Reform Association

They demanded a ten-hour day and improvements in conditions in the mills

This organization also turned to the state government and asked for legislative
investigation of conditions in the mills

The Immigrant Workforce
o
The quickly increasing supply of immigrant workers after 1840 was a boom to
manufacturers and other entrepreneurs

They now had access to a source of labor that was large and inexpensive
16
o
These immigrants typically encountered worse working conditions than women

Construction gangs made up mainly of Irish immigrants performed heavy work
on turnpikes, canals and railroads
o
The wages they received were so low, they couldn’t support their families in minimal
comfort
o
The arrival of Irish workers increased the deterioration of working conditions in New
England

There was less social pressure on owners to provide a decent environment for
Irish workers than there was for native women
o
Employers began paying piece rates (wages tied to how much a worker produced) and
employed other devices to speed up production and use the labor force more profitably
and efficiently
o
The town of Lowell, which was once a model for foreign visitors of enlightened
industrial development, became a slum by the mid 1840’s

Conditions in most American factory towns weren’t as bad as those in England
and Europe
o
Factories were becoming large, noisy, unsanitary, and dangerous places to work
o
The average workday was extending to 12, sometimes 14 hours

Wages declined; male workers could earn $4-10 a week, unskilled laborers could
earn $1-6 a week, and women and children earned less than most men

The Factory System and the Artisan Tradition
o
Skilled artisans suffered from the transition to the modern factory system

Skilled artisans valued their independence and the stability and relative equality
within their economic world
17
o
The factory system threatened that world with obsolescence
o
Some artisans made successful transitions into small-scale industry, but others found
themselves unable to compete with the new factory-made goods that sold for much less
than the artisans’ prices
o
To fight competition from industrial capitalists, craftsmen began in the early 19th
century to form workingmen’s political parties and the first American labor unions

They formed these organizations to protect their endangered positions and to
resist the new economic order
o
Professions that participated in this included printer, cordwainers, carpenters, joiners,
masons, plasterers, hatters, and shipbuilders
o
In prominent cities such as Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, and New York, the skilled
works of each craft formed societies for mutual aid

These craft societies began to combine on a citywide basis and set up central
organizations known as trade unions in the 1820s and 1830s

With the widening of markets, the economies of cities were interconnected,
giving advantages to workers who joined forces
o
Workers established national unions or federations of local ones

The National Trades’ Union was formed in 1834 by delegates from six cities

In 1836, the printers and cordwainers set up their own national craft unions

o
Labor leaders struggled against the handicap of hostile laws and hostile courts

o
The early craft union movement fared poorly
The common law viewed the combination among works as an illegal conspiracy
The Panic of 1837 further weakened the movement
18
Pgs. 278-80

In 1834, delegates from six cities founded the National Trades’ Union; And in 1836, the printers
and the cordwainers set up their own national craft unions.

This Union however, struggled against hostile laws and courts which viewed it as an illegal
conspiracy; Panic of 1837 created recession which weakened the movement too

Fighting for Control
o
Workers attempted to influence legislatures to pass laws that would set a maximum
workday
o
New Hampshire in 1847 then Pennsylvania in 1848 passed 10 hour laws
o
Laws allowed for “express contracts” which would allow workers to stay longer

o
Companies forced people to sign these contracts to be hired
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Pennsylvania passed laws regulating child labor
easily tread around by persuading parents to let children work longer

Commonwealth v. Hunt Massachusetts
o
1842; declared that unions were lawful organizations and the strike was a lawful
weapon
o
Unions still ineffective due to people not joining or lack of numbers to hold effective
strikes
o
Artisan and skilled worker unions protected members by restricting admission to the
trades
o
New unions: National Typographical Union 1852, Stone Cutters 1853, Hat Finishers
1854,
o
Molders and Machinists both in 1859
o
Most unions excluded women
19

By 1850s women began to establish their own protective unions, but lacked the
power to negotiate with employers like male counterparts.
o
In England, workers were becoming more powerful and often violent political forces.
o
Flood of immigrant laborers into US inhibited growth of labor resistance as they were
willing to work for lower wages. Led to resentments towards immigrants instead of
employers.

“Free Labor”
o
Despite bad conditions workers valued their freedom, considering themselves
“sovereign individuals” they could at least make choices and change their lives
o
Philosophers argued that the “independency of the individual” required people to
escape the market economy and find freedom in solitude and nature-transcendentalism
o
Conditions for poor northerners were often worse than slaves, but they found pride in
ability to leave jobs if they wanted, move to new areas, and seek new opportunities

Many fear slavery threatened the jobs of free laborers and was the antithesis of
freedom
o

More than 200,000 free blacks living in the north, not considered legal citizens
Patterns of Industrial Society
o
The Rich and the Poor
o
The industrial growth elevated the average income of the American people

Slaves, Native Americans, landless farmers, and many unskilled laborers shared
in hardly any of this economic growth
o
In the Revolutionary Era 45% of the wealth was concentrated in 10% of the population,
by 1860, 5% of families possessed more than 50% of the wealth
20
o
In Philadelphia, 1% possessed more than half the wealth, Boston: 4% had more than
65%
o
In cities, there was then enough rich people to develop a distinct culture of wealth

Looked for ways to display extravagance: mansions, carriages, goods, clothes,
etc.

New York particularly developed an extremely elaborate high society, they
attempted to be like London and Paris; they wanted to build a park to make a
new rich district and display wealth

Landscape architects Frederick Olmsted and Calvert Vaux developed a vast part
of Manhattan into Central Park, one of the largest and most elegant in America
o
There was also a large population of destitute people developing in urban centers; they
were homeless and relied on charity or crime for survival

This group was referred to as “Paupers”: often recent immigrants,
widows/orphans, alcoholics, mentally ill, others victims of prejudice Irish

In particular free blacks were by far the worst off group; They either had menial
jobs or no jobs, they couldn’t vote, attend public schools, or use public services.
Still proud of some level of freedom.
Pgs 281-283

SOCIAL MOBILITY
o
Relative economic position of American Workers declining but better working
conditions
o
working conditions in American factories were greater than those in European farms

o
Ate better, had access to more goods, etc.
Not always, but enough workers were able to grow rich through work
21
o
this small amount encouraged others

more often workers would move up somewhat, but not to riches, from unskilled
to skilled

More common than social was geographic mobility
o
tons of land available to the public in the 1840s and 50s
o
some workers saved up to move west and farm, but many didn't know how to farm or
were too poor
o
saw workers moving from one industrial city to another

o
Politics was something that workers became enthusiastic about


sometimes victims of layoffs looking for new jobs
for white males their votes seemed to actually help and impact their society
MIDDLE CLASS LIFE
o
Fast growing middle class due to industrial jobs and commercial economy growing
o
People could own shops, administer organizations, etc.
o
Before, there was those with no land (almost peasants) and those with land (gentry)

Now that commerce and industry are growing, means land isn't the only way to
make money

o
Middle Class people start to have solid homes that they own themselves, like the rich


these borders start to break down
Artisans start to become renters, a new concept
New Household Inventions
o
Iron Stove, replaced fireplace for cooking

allowed for several things to be cooked at once, used wood or coal
22
o
Diets become better due to stoves, diversification of American agriculture, and ability of
farmers to ship their goods to urban markets in different regions
o
Fruits and Vegetables hard to ship, but meats, grains, and dairy was more easily
obtained
o

Ice boxes started to become a thing for middle or upper-class families

not everyone had refrigeration, salt and sugar were used to preserve

people were much stouter than now due to diets
Growing Class Distinctions
o
Middle Class tried to differentiate themselves from workers and artisans, who were
below them

o
carpets, curtains, wallpaper, Victorian and baroque styles
o
Houses were larger, had parlors dining rooms, some had indoor plumbing


more decorated and furnished, goods from factories were more accessible
outdoor privies remained common for working class
THE CHANGING FAMILY
o
Changes due to industrialization in the North, people move to urban cities rather than
farms and value jobs over land
o
In farms, patriarchal society where father would decide land distribution

now, sons and daughters went out to find work as well
o
Incoming earning leaves the home and goes into shops, factories, etc.
o
family farms, shops and industries had been the norm in the US, family worked together
on them and shared jobs

Declining Economic Role of the Family
o
Farming goes towards Northwest, farms get larger to produce more
23
o
owners start to need family less, hire male workers who took the jobs of the family
members
o

farm women start to cook, dairy, sew, garden

less heavy labor tasks that made less income
Industrial economies, people leave home each day to work elsewhere, family doesn't
make money together but separately
o

now family life in these areas consisted of housekeeping, ran by women
Falling Birth Rates
o
1800, average of 7 children per woman, 1860 average of 5


less babies mostly in industrial and urban families
o
contraception is used more often, abortion rates rise possible as high as 20%
o
abstinence is also much more common
WOMEN OF THE "CULT OF DOMESTICITY"
o
Very different social roles for men and women now

before, women had very little rights, fathers the head of families, divorces were
very hard to obtain for women
o

wife beating was rarely illegal, husbands general had absolute authority
Female Education
o
Women had much less access, although encouraged to attend elementary but not
higher education
o
Oberlin was the first college to permit female students

enrolled 4 females in 1837, despite criticism saying there would be "free love"
24


few places shared their views, coeducation is very rare
New Roles for Women
o
Guardians of "Domestic Virtues"

took care of children, more central to the family than before
o
more strong companions and helpers to the husbands of the family
o
Not only important as wives but as consumers

kept homes clean and comfortable, entertained guests and dressed well
Pgs 286-288
“Separate Sphere”
•
Development of female culture
o
Women formed social networks (Female clubs and associations for various reforms)
o
Feminine literature: Godey’s Lady’s Book (Sarah Hale). Focused on fashions, shopping, and
homemaking advice. Excluded religion
o
The new female sphere expressed certain qualities that made women in some ways superior
to men

“Cult of domesticity”- Brought benefits and costs to middle-class women. Allowed
them to live greater material lives and place higher value on “female virtues”. Also
left women increasingly detached from the public world
-Working-class women
•
Married women ceased to work, but unmarried women needed a source of income
o
Some became teachers or nurses, but others relied on family generosity, governesses for
children, or companions for widows as their source of income
o
Working-class women worked in factories and mills under bad conditions.
25

Domestic service
-Leisure
•
For most people, Sunday was the only day off from work and was generally reserved for religion. No
commercial business on Sundays
o
Holidays were of importance to the working and middle class. Fourth of July was an
expression of Patriotism

Rural Areas- Erratic pattern of farm work was different than the work schedules of
city residents

o
Urban Areas- Men gathered in taverns; Women gathered in one another’s homes
Reading was popular for the educated people. Newspapers, magazines, books, histories,
autobiographies, biographies, etc. became popular.

“Sentimental Novel”-Genre of fiction specific to females. Idealized women’s lives
and romances.
-Public Leisure
•
Theaters became popular for public leisure
o
Many theaters attracted audiences from all social classes
o
Minstrel Shows- white actors mimicked black culture
o
Public sporting events- boxing, horse-racing, cockfighting, baseball
o
Circus was an exciting event in many communities (some circuses had roots in the Middle
Ages)
-P.T. Barnum
•
Provider of things to amaze and frighten people
26
o
Opened American Museum in NYC. Museum was a freak show populated by midgets (most
famously Thomas Thumb), Siamese twins, magicians, ventriloquist
o
Posters and newspaper announcements were used for publicity
o
Barnum also used fascinating lectures

Lectures were popular entertainment; Messages of social uplift and reform
attracted women
-The Agricultural North
•
Agriculture was becoming important to the new capitalist economy
o
Northeastern Agriculture saw a decline and transformation. Decline caused by farmers not
being able to compete with farmers in the Northwest

Some eastern farmers moved west, or to mill towns, but others turned to supplying
food to eastern urban centers and cities
o
Dairy Farming was a result of growing cities. Half of dairy products came from the east and
most of the rest came from Ohio
o
As the importance of agriculture declined, the rural population declined.
-The Old Northwest
•
Steady Industrial Growth
o
Industrial and commercial area along Lake Erie, with Cleveland at its center
o
Ohio River Valley-Manufacturing region with the meatpacking city of Cincinnati at the
center.
o
Chicago was becoming the national center of agricultural machinery
o
Industry was much less important to the Northwest than farming
27
Pgs. 289-90

Northeastern Agriculture
o
After 1840 decline and transformation- farmers couldn’t compete with new rich soil of
Northwest.
o
Rural population declined.

Some farmers moved west for new farms, others moved to mill towns and
became laborers.

Others turned to providing eastern urban centers vegetables, fruit, profitable
dairy products

The Old Northwest
o
Some industry (more than in South), industrial growth, before Civil War- much served
agriculture or relied on agricultural products
o
Lands from urban centers primarily agricultural, owned by workers. Rising world farm
prices gave incentive for commercial agriculture: growing single crop for market,
international market for American food
o
Growth of factories + cities increased demand for farm goods. Northwest farmers sold
most goods to people in Northeast + dependent on their purchasing power, Eastern
industry found market for products in prosperous West
o
To expand production Western expansion into prairie regions during 1840s/50s, new
farm techniques and inventions used- John Deere’s steel plow

o
Automatic reaper by Cyrus McCormick + thresher revolutionized grain production
o
NW democracy based on defense of economic freedom and rights of property
Rural Life
28
o
Religion powerful force drawing farm communities together. Also joined together to
share tasks difficult for single family (such as barn raising)
o
Rural life not always isolated, but less contact w/ popular culture and public social life
than in towns and cities. Cherished farm life autonomy
CHAPTER 10 QUESTIONS
1. What were the reasons for the effect of the rapid increase in population between 1820-1840?
One reason for the growth was improvements in public health. The number of epidemics were
declining, along with the nation’s mortality rate. There was also a high birth rate, which helped
the population grow. Immigration also played a role starting in the 1830s.
2. Where did this increase in population settle? What population shifts took place between 18201840, and how did they affect political division?
The growth of the population began to settle in cities. The population skyrocketed from 18201840 and rapid urbanization began to take place.
3. Why was the rise of New York City so phenomenal? What forces combined to make it America’s
leading city?
The rise of NYC was partly a result of its superior natural harbor. It was also a result of the Erie
Canal, which gave the city access to the interior, and of liberal state laws that made the city
attractive for commerce.
4. What major immigrant groups came to the United States during this period? What impact did they
have on the character and distribution of the population in the North?
29
German and Irish immigrants came in large numbers to the United States during this period.
Irish immigrants swelled in the ranks of unskilled labor and German immigrants became farmers
or went into business in the Western towns.
5. What impact did this immigration have on the political system? Which party was the most
successful in attracting immigrant voters? Why?
Some people were angered by immigrants coming over. Nativism is a defense of native-born
people and a hostility towards foreigners. Democrats attracted most immigrant voters.
6. What gave rise to the nativist movement? What were the political goals?
Nativists viewed the growing foreign population with alarm. They argued that the new
immigrants were inherently inferior to older Americans. They created a number of secret
societies to combat the “alien menace.”
7. Why were the natural means of carrying commerce (lakes and rivers) unsatisfactory to most
Americans?
Farmers would pay less to transport their goods if they could ship them directly eastward to
market, rather than by the roundabout river-sea route. The cost of using lakes and rivers was
too high.
8. How did Americans propose to overcome the geographical limitations on water travel?
Americans used railroads to overcome the geographical limitations on water travel. They
emerged from a combination of technological and entrepreneurial innovations. They became
the primary transportation system for the US.
30
9. Which area took the lead in canal development? What was the effect of these canals on that
section of the country? How did other sections respond to this example?
The ambitious state governments of the Northeast took the lead in constructing them. New York
began digging for the Erie Canal which would provide a route to the Great Lakes and gave access
to the city of Chicago.
10. What were the general characteristics of early railroad development in the US? What innovations
aided the progress of railroads, and what advantages did railroads have over other forms of
transportations?
Railroads emerged from a combination of technological and entrepreneurial innovations. The
technological breakthroughs included the invention of tracks. The creation of steam-powered
locomotives and the development of railroad cars that could serve as public carriers of
passengers and freight. Railroads could go places other forms of transportation couldn’t.
11. What innovations in transportation and/or communication, other than the growth of the
railroads, took place during this period?
Canals and the invention of steamboats were major innovations as it allowed goods and
information to reach places quicker and cheaper. The telegram also emerged at this time which
made information more easily available. Newspapers became more readily available because of
the rotary press.
12. In the broadening of business described here, what shifts in manufacturing took place and what
business innovations occurred, and what effect did this have on the general distribution of goods in
America?
31
Corporations began to develop in the 1830s, when laws were passed that made corporations
easier to form. A system called limited liability emerged which meant stockholders risked losing
only the value of their own investment if a corporation should fail, and that they were not liable
for the corporation’s larger losses. Banks at this time began to give out bank notes since credit
was scares. Products began being massed produce, like shoes, and factory began using machines
with interchangeable parts. Coal began to replace water and food as fuel. All these things made
products cheaper and more available for Americans.
13. What influence did technology have on the growth of American industry?
Technology helped to produce goods quicker, easier and cheaper. Patents for inventions
skyrocketed during this period because inventors kept on creating new things to make factories
more efficient.
14. What changes contributed to the rise of the factory? Why was this "the most profound economic
development in mid-nineteenth century America"?
Improved technology and increasing demand produced a change from private workshops or the
cottage industry to factories. Manufactured became a major industry, especially in the north. It
began to rival agriculture in total value produced in the United States. This helped the U.S
develop because now people didn't need to rely on imports and gave people more job
opportunities.
15. How did technology and industrial ingenuity prepare the way for the expansion of industry and
the growth of the American economy?
32
Technology helped to produce good more efficiently and ingenuity kept on adding to these
inventions. Ingenuity also helped factories run longer and gave factories smarter business plans
like investing or gaining capital.
16. Who were the "merchant capitalists" and what was the significance of their transformation into
"industrial capitalists"?
The merchant capitalists were the business men with all the money. Using their capital, they
paved the way for the creation of factories and things being massed produce. Industrial
capitalist differ from merchant capitalist because merchant capitalist are usually the sole owners
but industrial might form a cooperation and get people to invest in their business ventures. This
caused more wealth to be had.
17. How did the textile mills recruit and use labor? What was the general response of workers to the
Lowell method? Of observers? What caused the breakdown of this system?
Textile mills would recruit women. The Lowell system was seen as a great working environment
compared to the European factories, but the women had to work long, tedious jobs. The
breakdown was caused by the decline of wages and working and living conditions.
18. What was the lot of working women in Lowell and other factory towns? How did this differ from
conditions in Europe? What problems did these women have in adjusting to factory and factory-town
life?
The women were mostly farmers' daughters in their earlier twenties. Their conditions were
much better than the Europeans. These women had to adjust to tedious work days and living in
a new environment. Many women became lonely and disoriented.
19. How did the circumstances of immigrant workers differ from those of native laborers?
33
The influx of immigrants provided a large work force so their leverage was weaker because of
the inflation of cheap labor. Since natives had no love for the immigrants, no one cared about
their working condition or wages so their quality of life was terrible. Immigrants barely made
enough to love and could hardly provide for their families.
20. What was the general condition of workers in northeastern factories? What impact did factory
work have on the artisan tradition in America?
The general condition was still better than Europe but factory areas became an unsanitary and
dangerous place to live. Artisan were becoming obsolete so they began to form trade unions to
prevent job loss.
21. What attempts were made to better conditions in northeastern factories? What role did unions
play in these attempts and what was accomplished?
Workers tried to pass legislature to better their lots. Unions were formed to protect workers’
rights but little was accomplished. Immigrants were the reason why workers had modest power
because of the fear that an immigrant would replace your job since they were willing to do it
cheaper.
22. Why was the increasing wealth of America not widely or equitably distributed? How was this
unequal distribution manifested in daily life? Which groups were most likely to be found at the
bottom of the economic scale?
The wealth wasn’t equally distributed because of the small amount of economic growth on the
poor side. Unequal distributions were seen in slaves, unskilled workers, and landless farmers.
This was seen in the living conditions, and income of these groups.
34
23. What was life like for middle-class Americans during the antebellum era?
The middle class grew in this time of large commercial and industrial growth as business and
trade opportunities became more available. Many people who didn’t own land before could
become prosperous by pushing valuable services into the economy. This helped to create a
more urban setting at this time as middle class could attain substantial houses comparable to
the wealthy’s. Women often stayed home, but were sometimes able to hire servants to take
care of the family.
24. Despite the gap between rich and poor, there was little overt class conflict in antebellum America.
Why?
There were a few reasons. The lower class laborers were seeing a decrease in economic status,
but often found themselves in better living conditions. They were generally in better conditions
than they had before farming, or working in another country. Also, social mobility was possible,
so this gave the workers something to strive for. If the workers didn’t move up the ladder, they
hoped to give their children a better chance of moving up. Lastly, politics helped them feel
involved in decision making, which gave them a sense of power.
25. What "profound change in the nature and function of the family" took place during this era? What
caused this change?
This was mainly caused by the change of setting from the farm to the urban life, where jobs
were more important than land. In this situation children were much more likely to look for
work and jobs instead of the parents controlling them with the distribution of land. Family farms
and shops became more prevalent. On farms as profitability grew, farmhands were the main
work force, and women moved to indoor jobs.
35
26. What conditions put women in a "separate sphere," and what were the characteristics of the
"distinctive female culture" women developed?
The distinction of public and private worlds helped to outline the differences. The thought of a
woman being “male property” became more prevalent at this time as women’s social roles
changed, and they almost became less of a voice. There were many though who believed that
this new sphere showed characteristics of women that were superior to men even though they
were being oppressed.
27. What was the "cult of domesticity," and what costs and benefits did it bring to middle-class
women? To working-class women?
This brought about the idea of middle class women not being income producers, but instead
they were believed to have “domestic virtues” that were central to the family. They also became
important consumers. In this, they lived in greater material comfort than before but for a cost of
some freedoms and new oppression.
28. What caused the decline of farming in the Northeast? What did farmers in the Northeast do to
overcome this decline, and what new patterns in agriculture resulted?
The rapid growth of industrialization and urbanizing. This pushed commercial agriculture, and
industrialized farming. Agriculture declined in areas that couldn’t compete with this new type of
farming. In general, this made farming more of a part of the capitalist economy in America.
29. What was the basis of the economy in the Northwest? What goods were produced there?
The basis of the economy was agriculture, but was growing in the meatpacking industry. Goods
that were produced there included flour, meat, and whiskey. Industry in general was much less
important here than farming.
36
30. Where were most of the goods produced in the Northwest marketed? What role did this play in
the pre-1860 sectional alignment?
Most of the goods were marketed overseas, to places like Europe. This industrial agriculture was
boosted, and demand rose. This led to the expansion to uncultivated lands in areas like: Indiana,
Michigan, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri, and Iowa. Here, other crops also became more
important.
31. What factors and inventions contributed to the growth and expansion of the Northwest's
economy? Who were the men responsible for this?
The automatic reaper allowed one person to harvest as much wheat as five people in day. This
was created by Cyrus McCormick. Also, Jerome Case made a threshing machine in Wisconsin
that could thresh 25 bushels or more in an hour. These both helped increase productivity, and
helped the economy grow.
CHAPTER 10 VOCABULARY
Commonwealth v. Hunt
Court case in which the Supreme Court of Massachusetts declared that unions are lawful and
that strikes are a lawful weapon. It was the greatest victory for most industrial workers in Massachusetts
in the time period.
The decisions made in this court case led to other states gradually accepting the same principles
for unions. Overall, the case didn't effect much because union leaders couldn't get enough workers to
have an effective strike.
"Cult of Domesticity"
37
Refers to the period in mid-19th century when women started to have more important roles in
society. They obtained a better education, taught morality and benevolence, and became the teachers
of religion to their children.
The Cult of Domesticity allowed women to live lives of greater material comfort, and higher
value was placed on "female virtues" and motherly and wifely roles. There are also forms of female
entertainment such as all magazines and clubs for just women.
Cyrus H. McCormick
Virginia farmer and inventor of the automatic reaper. Established a large grain factory in
Chicago at the heart of the grain belt. The automatic reaper allowed for one worker to harvest as much
wheat as five could without the reaper. 100,000 of McCormick's reapers were in use in 1860. De Witt
Clinton and the Erie Canal. Became the governor of New York in 1817. He was an advocate of building
the eerie canal because of its economic advantages, and he began the start of its construction when he
became governor.
The canal provided a route the Great Lakes, and gave New York City direct access to Chicago and
markets in the west. The canal caused for New York City to compete with New Orleans as a destination
for agricultural and manufactured goods.
Factory System
System of goods being produced in large factories instead of in small workshops or households.
It was made due to increasing technology and demand for more goods and a faster rate. Was first seen
in the textile industry.
The factory system greatly hurt home-based system (cottage industry) of spinning thread. It led
to more people working in factories, including women and children.
38
Godey's Lady's Book
A popular women's magazine in the mid-19th century edited by Sarah Hale. It was about
homemaking, shopping, fashion, and other interests that women had at the time.
This book helped create women's own culture, or "separate sphere" at the time. It was the first
popular magazine that focused on the interests of women, not on politics and public controversies.
Know Nothings
Nativists that that believed native born Americans should be superior to immigrants. They
wanted to ban minorities from voting because they "corrupted politics." They were called the Native
American party before the know nothing's.
The Know Nothing's formed the American party to get their beliefs pushed in politics. They won
control of the state governments in New York and Pennsylvania, but didn't have much influence on any
there states in the country.
Lowell System
A factory labor system that consisted of all unmarried young women. They were treated well
and had very good living and working conditions compared to women factory workers in England.
This kind of environment made the transition from farm to factory working less strange and
difficult for women. It showed that conditions in factories for everyone didn't have to be so harsh.
Machine Tools
Tools used to make machinery part that were an important contribution to manufacturing. The
turret lathe and the universal milling machine were two important ones from the time period.
39
They government supported the creation of machine tools because many were made to aid the
military. Machine tools in U.S factories eventually became better than those in Europe.
Nativism
A defense of native born Americans in the U.S (not Indians) and opposed those in the U.S that
were foreign born. Nativists were against immigration and felt immigrants were inferior.
Nativists felt that immigrants were taking the jobs of Americans, not allowing social mobility.
Nativism led to formation of the Native American party and the Know-Nothings.
P. T. Barnum
A famous American showman who opened the American Museum in New York City in 1852. This
museum was a freak show, consisting of midgets, magicians and other entertainers.
Barnum used propaganda and lectures to promote his museum, making it much more popular
across the country. Barnum's works gave the people at the time an interesting way to be entertained.
Samuel F. B. Morse
First person to successfully make a working telegraph. He transmitted the news of Polk's
nomination from Baltimore to Washington D.C.
The telegraph allowed for the fastest long distance communication at the time. It led to the
formation of the Western Union Telegraph Company.
Sarah Bagley
The leader of the women in the Lowell system. She created the Female Labor Reform
Association, which demanded 10 hour days and improvements in the mills.
40
The association ended up turning to the state government for reform. However, they never had
much impact due to the women at the time leaving the mills to start families and get the jobs.
Trunk Lines
Name given to longer railroad lines that replaced shorter railroad lines in the U.S. They started
to connect different cities across the country.
Trunk lines diverted traffic from the Eerie Canal and the Mississippi River, which was ere the
main water routes. The West now depended less on the Mississippi, weakening the connection between
the northwest and south, leading to more sectionalism.
CHAPTER 10 ASIDES

Page 260-261:

"The American Patriot" was a nativist newspaper

Provisions of the Arizona State Senate Bill 1070, signed into law by Governor Jan Brewer,
included the right of law enforcement agents to ask for a person's immigration documents
during routine stops, and a mandate that any illegal immigrant convicted of a crime or
misdemeanor to be turned over to federal immigration agents.

The bill resulted in the persecution of both legal and illegal immigrants.

Page 272-275:

Strict rules governed women's time away from the textile mills. They even stayed in companysupervised boardinghouses. "Handbook to Lowell" includes the factory and boardinghouse
rules, health and safety, record keeping and reporting of information, conflicts of interest, fair
dealing, quality, protection and proper use of company assets, confidentiality, encouraging the
41
reporting of any illegal or unethical behavior, and waiver of the code of business conduct and
ethics.

Page 284-285:

Works of art often depict family life. "Godey's Lady's Book" included an image that focused on
the lives of better-off white women, and it also featured advice columns on family living. A lot is
said in the small details of images of the family life. Looking at the details of these images over
time show the evolution of family life in America.
42
CHAPTER 11 OUTLINE
Pgs 294-296
•
Setting the Stage
o
The South, like the North, grew territorially as well as agriculturally leading to economic
growth too
o
Cotton trade allowed the South to become a major force in international commerce
o
As the South grew and expanded, it became increasingly unlike the North and increasingly
sensitive to what it considered threats to its distinctive way of life.
•
The Cotton Economy
o
The most important economic development in the mid-nineteenth-century South was the
shift of economic power from the “upper South” (the original southern states along the
Atlantic coast) to the “lower South” (the expanding agricultural regions in the new states of
the Southwest)
o
•
The Rise of King Cotton
Decline of the Tobacco Economy
o
Tobacco also rapidly exhausted the land on which it grew
o
it was difficult for most growers to remain in business in the same place for very long
o
Many farmers were reverting to other crops

Such a wheat

Rice

rice, however, demanded substantial irrigation and needed an exceptionally long
growing season (nine months)

Sugar
43

•
sugar cultivation required intensive (and debilitating) labor and a long growing time
Short Staple Cotton
o
This was a hardier and coarser strain of cotton that could grow successfully in a variety of
climates and in a variety of soils
o
It was harder to process than the long-staple variety; its seeds were more difficult to remove
from the fiber
•
Demand for Cotton
o
growth of the textile industry in Britain and in New England, created an enormous new
demand for the crop
o
As a result, ambitious men and women rapidly moved into previously uncultivated lands to
establish new cotton- growing regions
o
•
cotton had become the linchpin of the southern economy
Spread of Cotton Production
o
There were periodic fluctuations in cotton prices
o
the cotton economy continued to grow
o
By the time of the Civil War, cotton constituted nearly two- thirds of the total export trade
of the US bringing in nearly $200 million a year

o
Southern politicians now proclaimed: “Cotton is king!”

o
The annual value of the rice crop was $2 million
"Lower South" nickname was "Cotton Kingdom"
The prospect of tremendous profits from growing cotton drew white settlers to the lower
South by the thousands

Some were wealthy planters from the older states who transferred their assets and
slaves to a cotton plantation
44
•
Expansion of Slavery
o
410,000 slaves moved from the upper South to the cotton states

either accompanying masters who were themselves migrating to the Southwest or
(more often) sold to planters already there
o
the sale of slaves to the Southwest became an important economic activity in the upper
South

It also helped the troubled planters of that region compensate for the declining
value of their crops
•
Southern Trade and Industry
o
In the face of this booming agricultural expansion, other forms of economic activity
developed slowly in the South
•
Weak Manufacturing Sector
o
There was growing activity in flour milling and in textile and iron manufacturing, particularly
in the upper South
o
The Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond compared favorably with the best iron mills in the
Northeast

industry remained an insignificant force in comparison with the agricultural
economy


o
To the degree that the South developed a nonfarm commercial sector
it was largely to serve the needs of the plantation economy
The South had only a very rudimentary financial system

the factors often also served the planters as bankers, providing them with credit

Factors= the brokers
45
o
Planters frequently accumulated substantial debts particularly during periods when cotton
prices were in decline
o
the southern merchant-bankers thus became figures of considerable influence and
importance in the region
Pgs 297-299
•
•
•
•
south lacked basic services and structures needed for industrial development
o
poor banking system
o
no canals
o
crude roads
o
relied on the North
James B. D. De Bow
o
Louisiana resident
o
advocate of southern independence
Reasons for Colonial dependency
o
southern agricultural community was booming
o
wealthy southerners had too much capital invested in slaves
o
steamy climate
Cavalier image (manners, politeness, graciousness etc.) as opposed to Yankees
o
Planter aristocracy

only a small portion of slave-owners owned large numbers of them

controlled politics

thought of themselves as European aristocracy
46
Pgs 300-302
•
“Honor”
o
Chivalry and defending ones honor became big

Conventional shows of respect and courtesy

Duels

Tied to the public appearance of dignity and authority

Brooks beat Sumner to defend his families honor making him a hero In the
south
o
•
Defending honor was more a southern thing
The “southern lady”
o
o
The women became part of a man’s honor that he had to defend

Made men more dominant and women more subordinate

George Fitzhugh- women have on right: to be protected
Southern women as opposed to northern lived in isolated farms which no access to the
public
o

Fewer opportunity beyond mother or wife

If they lived on a smaller plantation they could weave, spin

“Plantation mistress”
Southern women had less access to education

Men did not bother to get them educated

The few women academies were to make women better wives
o
Higher birth rates, but half of all kids died before 5 years
o
Men cheated on wives with slaves
47

Children had with slaves were then slaves and constant reminders to the wives
of the infidelity
o
Many discontent women could not find ways to speak out so accepted their position
and convinced themselves it was beneficial to them

•
Others spoke out, joined abolitionists, moved north, etc...
The Plain Folk
o
Most of the southern population, “plain folk” only held land with a few slaves and had
to live in closer quarters with them
o
Subsistence farmers “yeoman farmers”
o
Many did not have slaves
o
Could not better themselves

o
Not many educational opportunities for poor whites
Question raised: “why didn't these plain folk rebel against the aristocratic society of the
southern plantation owners?
o

Many who opposed were too isolated to gather a large force

Slavery did not benefit the small farms and blocked social mobility
“Hill people”

The most isolated southerners lived in the Appalachian ranges east of the
Mississippi, in the Ozark’s to the west of the river, and in other “hill country” or
“backcountry” areas cut off from the commercial world

They shared the hate of slavery with northerners

Fervent loyalists and had a proud sense of being secluded

They in many cases supported the north, (against secession, helped fight with
the union, did not support slavery)
48
o
The small farm owners however had a dependence on plantations

Access to cotton gins, markets, credit
o
Kinship connected the lower and upper class
o
Others felt tied by the strong sense of democracy

Debates, votes
o
Some felt secure in the yeomen farms
o
Committed to the paternalistic male dominated society

An attack on their way of life (slavery) would be an attack on their paternalistic
domination
o
Stuck to tradition
o
“White trash”

“Crackers” poor southerners who still accepted Cultural norm

Many were worse off than slaves

Foraged, hunted, labored, some had to resort to eating clay “clay eaters”

Dietary deficiencies lead to their degradation and disease spread

Too little strength to oppose the aristocracy

However poor off they were they still considered themselves the proud,
dominant (white) race

Felt tied to aristocracy by race
Pgs 303-305
•
Limited Class Conflict
o
among poor there is no real opposition to plantation system or slavery
o
perception of race unites them: despite how poor they were, southern whites looked
upon slaves and considered themselves the "ruling race"
49
o
Frederick Law Olmsted: Northerner who visited south and wrote about southern society
1850s
•
Slavery: the Peculiar Institution
o
S. Whites called slavery the "peculiar institution" because it was so separated from the
rest of the world and society and because it was unusual

sharp divisions, unusual relationships between owners and slaves (influenced
one another)
•
Varieties of Slavery
o
Legal Basis of Slavery: detailed laws and codes in South

slaves forbidden to: hold property, leave owners property, be out after dark, to
congregate and any other things

Some state laws forbade anyone from education of slaves etc.

killing a slave was not a crime, yet any transgression by a slave pretty much
meant a death sentence for him/her
o
Reality of slavery: laws were spotty and often not enforced

ranged from prison-like conditions to servant conditions

on regular plantations (owners owned few slaves), owners and slaves worked
alongside each other and formed relationships unknown to larger plantations


paternal relationship
most of slaves were on larger plantations: "head-drivers" (overseers) kept slaves
"in order"
•
Task and Gang Systems: large planters usually used one of two methods for assigning slave labor:
o
Task system: slaves were individually assigned a job, once they were done they were
done for the day
50
o
Gang System: slaves were divided into groups and worked as long as a head driver
considered necessary
•
Life Under Slavery
o
o
slaves were given stuff that would basically be just enough for them to work

basic coarse diet (cornmeal, salt pork, molasses)

basic clothing

slave women did most of medical duties within community
Special Position of Slave Women: women did both field chores with men as well as
house chores (cooking, cleaning, child-rearing)

o
families were often split up: single parent families (special authority)
High Slave Mortality Rates: steady decrease in ratio of blacks to whites in South was
partially due to high mortality rates forced upon them from bad quality of life
o
o
o
few children survived into adulthood

living conditions still better in some ways than northern factory workers

conditions much better than Caribbean slaves conditions (sugar production)

cotton was much less arduous to grow than sugar cane
Owners take steps to improve conditions for slaves: don't start work until adolescent

hired labor for worst jobs

cost of hiring a worker and them dying vs. cost of a slave dying (1/1000)
House Slaves: on larger plantations certain slaves were dedicated exclusively for
housework (nursemaids, butlers, coachmen, house maids, cooks)

sometimes have close familiar relations form
51

however, more often house slaves were isolated from the rest, and their
transgressions were more noticeable so they received more frequent
punishments

household slaves left plantations sooner than field slaves did after
emancipation
o
Sexual Abuse: female slaves often were forced into "consensual" relationships with
overseers or owners etc.

abuse from men as well as punishment from white women who were jealous of
relationships their men formed with house slave women (arbitrary beatings,
increased workloads)
•
Slavery in the Cities
o
conditions differed significantly

isolation from free blacks and lower-class whites on plantations

the rigid control that owners employed created the impression that the chasm
between slavery and freedom was impossible to overcome

In the cities, slave owners had to give slaves some freedoms in order to run
efficient businesses etc.
Pgs. 306-308

Slavery in the Cities
o
Autonomy of Urban Slaves
o
While in the country, on isolated plantations, slaves maintained direct control, in the City,
slaves were out and about in the city performing errands all day long, interacting with both
free blacks and whites.
52

Jobs
o
While poor white laborers generally worked on farms, masters would hire out slaves to
work in mining, lumbering, in docks and construction sites, driving wagons and performing
other unskilled jobs
o
Cohabitation?
o
White southerners tended to dislike having slaves in cities, and as cities grew, many
slaveholders would sell their slaves to the countryside. At the same time though, many
mulattoes (mixed race people) were born. Also in this time period, the groundwork for
segregation was laid.

Free African Americans
o
Gaining Freedom
o
There were about 250,000 free blacks in the south during this time period. They gained their
freedom either by making money from a trade like sewing or smithing and buying their
freedom, or by being set free by the will of their master after his death

Tightened Restrictions on free blacks
o
Nat Turner’s revolt (and northern abolitionist agitation) made southerners afraid that free
blacks, if unsupervised, would become a threat. Because of that, most southern states
passed laws forbidding the freeing of slaves.

Finding Success?
o
Some free blacks found success in plantations of their own, and black communities in New
Orleans, Natchez and Charleston found stability. However, the vast majority of free blacks
lived, unable to find work, and with few rights.

The Slave Trade
o
Slave Markets
53
o
For short journeys, slaves would walk, on longer, they’d be taken by steamboat. Central
slave markets included Natchez, New Orleans, Charleston, and Mobile. In the slave trade,
families were often split up. Although importation of slaves from other countries had been
outlawed, slaves continued to be smuggled into the US.

The Amistad
o
The Amistad was a Cuban Slave ship, whose slaves mutinied and compelled the crew to sail
them back to Africa. The ship was caught by the US government. Although many thought
that the slaves should be returned to Cuba, John Quincy Adams argued that the foreign
slave trade was legal and they all should be freed. After they were freed, abolitionists
funded their return to Africa.

Slave Resistance
o
Slave attitudes toward slavery
o
Slave Owners argued that slaves were happy with their position, but this is of course
ridiculous in the vast majority of cases.
Pgs 309-312
•
Slave Resistance
o
Slave-owners, and many white Americans after emancipation, liked to argue that the
slaves were generally content.
o
The vast majority of southern blacks were not content with being slaves, they yearned
for freedom.
•
o
The response of blacks to slavery was a combination of adaptation and resistance.
o
At the extremes, slavery could produce two very different reactions.
The "Sambo"
54
o
Deferential slave who acted out the role that he recognized the white world expected of
him. More often than not, this pattern of behavior was a charade.
•
The Slave Rebel
o
A slave who could not bring himself or herself to either acceptance or accommodation
but remained forever rebellious.

Prosser and Turner rebellions

(1800) Gabriel Prosser gathered 1,000 rebellious slaves outside Richmond; but
two Africans gave the plot away, and the Virginia militia stymied the uprising
before it could begin. Prosser and thirty-five others were executed.

(1822) Charleston free black Denmark Vesey and his followers—rumored to
total 9,000, made preparations for revolt; but was snitched on and was dealt
with accordingly.

(1831) Nat Turner, a slave preacher, led a band of African Americans who armed
themselves with guns and axes. They went from house to house in
Southampton County, Virginia. They killed sixty white men, women, and
children before being overpowered by state and federal troops.

Resistance to slavery took less drastic forms such as running away.

Sympathetic whites began organizing the Underground Railroad to assist them
in flight.

Difficulties with escape
o
The hazards of distance and the slaves’ ignorance of geography were serious obstacles.
o
White “slave patrols,” stopped wandering blacks on sight throughout the South
demanding to see travel permits.
55

Without a permit, slaves were presumed to be runaways and were taken
captive.

Slave patrols employed bloodhounds to track African Americans who attempted
to escape through the woods.

o
•
Blacks continued to run away from their masters in large numbers.
Slaves Resistance

The most important method of resistance was the refusal to work hard.

Subtle methods of resistance

Working ineptly

Stole from masters and neighboring whites

Lost and broke tools
The Culture of Slavery
o
There was a process of adaptation. The process did not imply contentment with
bondage. No realistic alternative. Blacks adapted by developing a counterculture. It
enabled them to sustain a sense of racial pride and unity.
o
Language and Music
o
Slaves had a lot of trouble with speaking with each other because of the multitudes of
differing languages in Africa.
•

Pidgin

They created a common language to communicate with each other.

Drew heavily from English and less so from African languages
Importance of Slave Spirituals
o
Songs were sung in the field with white plantation owners around.
o
Songs were also important to their religion.
56
•
African American Religion
o
By the early 19th century, almost all blacks were Christian.
o
Autonomous black churches were banned by law.
o
Many slaves became members of the same denominations as their owners.
o
Slave prayer meetings routinely involved fervent chanting, spontaneous exclamations
from the congregation, and ecstatic conversion experiences.
o
African American religion emphasized the dream of freedom and deliverance.
o
Christian images, and biblical injunctions, were central to Gabriel Prosser, Denmark
Vesey, Nat Turner, and others who planned or engaged in open resistance to slavery.
•
•
Slave Religion
o
In cities and towns in the South, some African Americans had their own churches.
o
Seating in such churches was usually segregated.
The Slave Family
o
The “nuclear family” emerged as the dominant kinship model among African Americans.
o
Black women generally began bearing children at younger ages than most white
women.
•
o
Slave communities did not condemn premarital pregnancy in the way white society did.
o
Black couples would often begin living together before marrying.
o
Slave Marriages

It was customary for couples to marry after conceiving a child.

Marriages often occurred between slaves living on neighboring plantations.

Many slave marriages lasted throughout the course of long lifetimes.

Up to a third of all black families were broken apart by the slave trade.
Importance of Kinship Networks
57
o
One of the most frequent causes of flight from the plantation was a slave’s desire to find
a husband, wife, or child who had been sent elsewhere.
o
Black women, usually powerless to resist the sexual advances of their masters, often
bore the children of whites. They were consigned to slavery from birth.
o
Paternal Nature of Slavery

Paternalism became one of the most important instruments for white control.

By creating a sense of mutual dependence, whites helped reduce resistance to
an institution that, in essence, served only the interests of the ruling race.
CHAPTER 11 QUESTIONS
1. What was "the most important economic development in the South of the mid-nineteenth
century"? What caused this, and what was its economic impact?
The most important economic development in the mid-nineteenth-century South was the shift
of economic power from the upper south, the original southern states along the coast, to the
lower south, the expanding agricultural regions in the new states of the Southwest. This
happened due to the growing dominance of cotton. All other crops required to strenuous labor,
too much time to grow, or needed a particular soil to grow. The southern economy profited
greatly as a result of this.
2. What role did the businessman of the South play in the region’s economic development? What
element was most important in this group? Why?
The business class served the needs of the plantation economy. The most important were
brokers who put plantation owners’ crops out into the market. Professionals, Merchants, and
58
manufacturers were important to southern society, however they were still relatively
unimportant when compared with the same groups in the North.
3. What elements were necessary for extensive industrial development? Did the South possess these?
If not, why not?
The necessary element for development was an extensive transportations system. The south did
not have this. During the antebellum period, the North put hugs sums of money into roads,
canals and most importantly railroads with tightly connected the region. During the same time
the South did nothing.
4. What does the author mean by the statement that the antebellum South had a “colonial”
economy?
He means that the South did not have a fully developed economy, linking it back to colonial
times when the advances in technology and transportation were not present.
5. What groups made up the planter aristocracy? Why did their influence far exceed their numbers?
The planter aristocracy consisted of the cotton magnates, the sugar, rice, and tobacco nabobs,
and the white plantation owners who owned over 40 or 50 slaves and owned 800 or more acres
of land. They influenced far beyond their numbers as they commonly held social gatherings at
their large plantations in which they influenced the people who came to their points of view and
opinions and gained their support.
6. What was the “cavalier” image and how were southern planters able to create it?
This image represented the desire of Southern planters to live a live based on traditional
chivalry, leisure, and elegance. They tried to do this by maintaining a long-standing aristocracy,
however this was rarely true as most planters were new to their wealth and influence.
59
7. How was the role played by affluent southern white women like those of their northern
counterparts? How was it different?
Southern women occupied roles similar to their counterparts in the North. They generally
stayed at home, serving subordinately to their husbands and taking care of children. Women in
the South were also commonly more subordinate to men as the cult of honor meant that
southern white men gave importance to “defending” women. The majority of Southern women
lived on farms, and rarely left, isolating them from the public world.
8. If “the typical white southerner was not a great planter,” what was he? Describe and explain the
way of life of the southern “plain folk” –men and women.
The typical southerner was a modest yeoman farmer. They were plain folk because they owned
few if any saves and were not wealthy, as well as devoted themselves to farming. For these
people it was very difficult to get an education, making it even more difficult for social
advancement.
9. Why did so few non-slaveholding whites oppose the slaveholding oligarchy? Where did these
opponents live?
They did not oppose the system because they were commonly tied to it in important ways.
Small farmers depended on the large plantations for access to cotton gins, markets, and credits
or financial assistance. There was also many kinship networks that linked lower and upper class
whites. These mutual ties eliminated tensions between classes.
10. What were slave codes? What function did they serve? How were they applied, and what resulted
from their violation?
60
Slave codes forbade slaves to own property, leave their masters’ premises without permission,
be out after dark, congregate with one another except at church, to carry firearms, or to strike a
white person under any circumstance. Some states even denied the rights to read or write and
to testify against white people. Slave marriages were also not legal. Slaves faced the death
penalty or were subject to any punishment by their masters for breaking the codes.
11. How was slave life shaped by the slave’s relationship with his or her owner?
The nature of the relationship between masters and their slaves depended on the kind of
plantations they were on. Most masters with few slaves worked with their slaves and developed
positive, paternal relationships with them. On larger plantations however, relationships were
and masters were less intimately related with their slaves and hired overseers to supervise
them, and commonly they were cruel.
12. To a slave, what was life under slavery?
House slaves had a much easier life then the field slaves. Slaves were much less healthy than
whites. Slaves generally received at least enough necessities to enable them to live and work.
Their masters usually furnished them with an adequate diet. Many slaves had gardens for their
own use. They received cheap clothing and shoes. They lived in cabins called slave quarters.
13. Were there "classes" among the slaves? What evidence is there to support this?
Yes, there were field hands, and house servants. Field workers included men, women, and
children. The field workers had the most difficult jobs, and the most working hours of the day.
House servants had it easier because they only engaged in household activities.
14. How did slavery in cities differ from slavery on the plantation? What effect did urban slavery have
on the "peculiar institution" and on the relationship between white and black?
61
In the cities, a master could not supervise his slaves as closely as a slave owner in the South
could. In a rural plantation, masters could keep an effective watch over his slaves because they
had no contact with any free Blacks or people other than the ones in their plantation. In the
North, Blacks could run errands in the city, and their owners did not care to supervise them.
Urban slavery had an effect on the “peculiar institution” because black laborers were hired to
work at docks, construction sites, drive carriages, and perform other jobs in the cities. After their
work was done, they had time to mingle with free blacks and whites, which caused the line
between slavery and freedom to become indistinct.
15. What was life like for free blacks? How was freedom gained, and what were their opportunities
once free?
Life was very difficult because blacks had very few rights. They couldn't find jobs because they
often had few skills so no one wanted to hire them.
16. How did slaves respond to slavery? What evidence exists to show that slaves did not accept their
condition without protest and that, in some cases, they were strongly defiant?
Almost all slaves hated their conditions. Slaves responded to slavery with resistance and
adaptation. Some blacks resisted by becoming stereotypes like the slave rebel, which was the
slave who could not bring himself to accept slavery and remained rebellious.
17. What were the most widely recognized slave revolts? What effects did they have?
One slave revolt occurred in 1800, when Gabriel Prosser gathered 1,000 slaves outside
Richmond. Another occurred when Denmark Vesey gathered 9,000 slaves to revolt.
Unfortunately, the plans for these two revolts were given away, and both were stopped before
62
they were started. The revolt of Nat Turner in 1831 led slaves armed with guns and axes from
house to house in Southampton, Virginia. They killed 60 before they were stopped.
19. What role did religion play in the life of slaves? How did slaves influence religion in America?
They were forced to attend the same church as their owners, but Blacks were still able to form
their own type of Christianity. They practiced voodoo, and other religious traditions. In addition,
black preachers emerged. African American religion reflected the influence of African customs
and practices. It also emphasized their dreams of freedom.
20. What role did the family play in the life of slaves?
Slave families were an important thing of black culture in the South. It suffered because slaves
did not have a right to legal marriage, and slaves gave birth to children at a younger age than
whites. Family ties were strong as well. However, some marriages did not last because of the
slave trade industry. Family ties were so strong, that slaves escaped plantations to find their
relatives.
21. Explain the legal restrictions that were placed on slave families and on the religious life of slaves.
Slaves were forbidden to own property or leave the plantation without permission. They were
also prohibited from reading. Anyone with any African ancestry was considered a "black." The
slave laws were often spotty and uneven and not rigidly enforced.
22. How has the debate over the nature of plantation slavery evolved from the abolitionists'
interpretation before the Civil War up to the present? How have the various interpretations in this
debate reflected the times in which they appeared?
North was creating a complex commercial-industrial economy. The South was expanding its
agrarian economy. The differences between the North and the South were a result of
63
differences in natural resources, social structure, climate, and culture. Above all, they were the
result of the existence within the South of an unfree labor system that prevented the kind of
social fluidity that an industrializing society usually requires.
CHAPTER 11 VOCABULARY
Cult of Honor
This was the male southern code of chivalry. It included dueling and protecting the women, and
southerner men fiercely protected it. The traditional culture of the Southern United States has been
called a "culture of honor", that is, a culture where people avoid intentionally offending others, and
maintain a reputation for not accepting improper conduct by others. A prevalent theory as to why the
American South had or may have this culture is an assumed regional belief in retribution to enforce
one's rights and deter predation against one’s family, home and possessions. The concept was tested by
social scientists Richard Nisbett and Dov Cohen in their book Culture of Honor, popularized by a
discussion in Chapter Six of Outliers by Malcolm Gladwell, and touched upon in.
De Bow's Review
De Bow’s Review, which survived from its founding in 1846 until 1880. De Bow made his journal
into a tireless advocate of southern economic independence from the North, warning constantly of the
dangers of the “colonial” relationship between the sections. One writer noted in the pages of his
magazine: “I think it would be safe to estimate the amount which is lost to us annually by our vassalage
to the North at $100,000,000. Great God!” Yet De Bow’s Review was itself evidence of the dependency
of the South on the North. It was printed in New York, because no New Orleans printer had facilities
adequate for the task; it was filled with advertisements from northern manufacturing firms; and its
circulation was always modest in comparison with those of northern publications
64
Denmark Vesey
In 1822, the Charleston free black Denmark Vesey and his followers—rumored to total 9,000—
made preparations for revolt; but again word leaked out, and suppression and retribution followed. In
1831, Nat Turner, a slave preacher, led a band of African Americans who armed themselves with guns
and axes and, on a summer night, went from house to house in Southampton County, Virginia. They
killed sixty white men, women, and children before being overpowered by state and federal troops.
Gabriel Prosser
(1776 – October 10, 1800) was a literate enslaved blacksmith who planned a large slave
rebellion in the Richmond area in the summer of 1800. Information regarding the revolt was leaked
prior to its execution, and he and twenty-five followers were taken captive and hanged in punishment.
In reaction, Virginia and other state legislatures passed restrictions on free blacks, as well as prohibiting
the education, assembly, and hiring out of slaves, to restrict their chances to learn and to plan similar
rebellions.
Gang System
The gang system is a system of division of labor within slavery on a plantation (also read Task
System). It is the more brutal of two main types of labor systems. The other form, known as the task
system, was less harsh and allowed the slaves more self-governance than did the gang system. The gang
system allowed continuous work at the same pace throughout the day, never letting up or slowing
down. There were three gangs. The first gang (or "great gang") was given the hardest work, for the
fittest slaves. The second gang was for less able slaves (teenagers, or old people, or the unwell slaves)
and this gang was given lighter work. The third gang was given the easiest work.
Nat Turner
65
(October 2, 1800 – November 11, 1831) was an African-American slave who led a slave rebellion
of slaves and free blacks in Southampton County, Virginia on August 21, 1831 that resulted in 60 white
deaths. He led a group of other slave followers carrying farm implements on a killing spree. As they went
from plantation to plantation they gathered horses, guns, freed other slaves along the way, and
recruited other blacks that wanted to join their revolt. At the end of their rebellion they were accused of
the deaths of fifty white people. Virginia legislators also targeted free blacks with a colonization bill,
which allocated new funding to remove them, and a police bill that denied free blacks trials by jury and
made any free blacks convicted of a crime subject to sale and relocation. Whites organized militias and
called out regular troops to suppress the rising. In addition, mobs attacked blacks in the area killing an
estimated total of 100-200, many not involved at all with the revolt.
Pidgin
To overcome these barriers, they learned a simple, common language (known to linguists as
“pidgin”). It retained some African words, but it drew primarily, if selectively, from English. And while
slave language grew more sophisticated as blacks spent more time in America—and as new generations
grew up never having known African tongues—some features of this early pidgin survived in black
speech for many generations.
"Sambo"
One extreme was what became known as the “Sambo”—the shuffling, grinning, headscratching, deferential slave who acted out the role that he recognized the white world expected of him.
More often than not, the “Sambo” pattern of behavior was a charade, a façade assumed in the presence
of whites. The other extreme was the slave rebel—the African American who could not bring himself or
herself to either acceptance or accommodation but remained forever rebellious.
Slave Codes
66
Slavery was an institution established and regulated in detail by law. The slave codes of the
southern states forbade slaves to hold property, to leave their masters’ premises without permission, to
be out after dark, to congregate with other slaves except at church, to carry firearms, or to strike a white
person, even in self-defense. The codes of some states prohibited whites from teaching slaves to read or
write and denied slaves the right to testify in court against white people. The laws contained no
provisions to legalize slave marriages or divorces. If an owner killed a slave while punishing him, the act
was generally not considered a crime. Slaves, however, faced the death penalty for killing or even
resisting a white person and for inciting revolt. The codes also contained extraordinarily rigid provisions
for defining a person’s race. Anyone with even a trace of African ancestry was defined as black. And
anyone even rumored to possess any such trace was presumed to be black unless he or she could prove
otherwise—which was, of course, almost impossible to do.
Task System
Larger planters generally used one of two methods of as- signing slave labor. One was the task
system (most common in rice culture), under which slaves were as- signed a particular task in the
morning, for example, hoeing one acre; after completing the job, they were free for the rest of the day.
CHAPTER 11 ASIDES

The Character of Slavery (pg. 306-307)
o
slavery was the most intense debate in American history
o
Before the war...

abolitionists depicting slavery as brutal and dehumanizing

southern defenders claim that they are actually caring for and protecting the
slaves

both sides did not want to be separated (late 19th century)
67


beginning to romanticize the Old South and its "peculiar institution"

making it seem unthreatening
Ulrich B. Philips' American Negro Slavery (1918)
o
slavery was benign

o

challenges to Philips emerged in the 1940s
Melville J. Herskovits (1941)
o

kind masters looked over submissive, childlike slaves
African Americans retained their African heritage
Herbert Aptheker (1943)
o
published a chronicle of slave revolts to prove that blacks were not submissive and
content


1950s opposition to Philips
o
Kenneth Stampp's The Peculiar Institution (1956) and Stanley Elkins' Slavery (1959)
o
labor system did physical and psychological damage to its victims
o
slavery was like a prison
1970s opposition to Philips
o

John Blassingame (1973)
o

The hardships of slavery had strengthened, not destroyed, the African American family
Eugene Genovese’s Roll, Jordan, Roll (1974)
o

slaves retained their African culture
Herbert Gutman's The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom (1976)
o

focused on development of black culture in spite of slavery
African Americans had developed their own culture within our own
Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman's Time on the Cross
68

o
portrayed slavery as a successful and humane institution, if ultimately immoral
o
most northern industrialists faced greater hardship
The women
o
Elizabeth Fox-Genovese’s Within the Plantation Household (1988)
o
denied the supposed "closeness" of black and white women from their common
oppression by men
o
slave women were members of the workforce and anchors of the black family
o
recent publications show slaves as signs of political status, not economic practicality
69