Chapter 7
Intercultural Communication
Chapter Summary
Intercultural communication is the study of communication that takes place between unlike
individuals (people from different cultures). The field of intercultural communication has
grown considerably and now includes several sub-disciplines: cross-cultural, interethnic,
interracial and international communication. Each of these areas, along with cultural
variability, anxiety uncertainty management of meaning theory (AUMM), face negotiation
theory, ethnolinguistic identity theory, and cultural adaptation, are discussed in the chapter.
Cultural Variability
Hall and Hofstede offered a starting point for cultural comparison between national cultures.
The dimensions/elements identified by Hall and Hofstede are a continuum (e.g. more or less
individualistic) and as being both present in a culture (e.g. both individualistic and
collectivistic).
Hall delineated three cultural factors: (1) context, (2) time, and (3) space. High context
cultures have multiple contextual elements that help individuals to understand the rules and
norms of society while in low context cultures most communication is explicit. In a
monochromic time culture, careful planning is valued and individuals tend to do one thing at
a time. In a polychromic time culture, multitasking and flexible time management are more
common. Hall also studied proxemics, the study of space, and people’s sense of
territoriality.
Hofstede explored differences and similarities between national cultures. He identified four
dimensions of cultural variability: (1) individualism/collectivism, (2) masculinity/femininity,
(3) power distance, and (4) uncertainty avoidance. Individualism and collectivism deals with
Understanding Communication Theory, by Stephen Croucher
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the extent to which “I” or “we” impact one’s decision making. Maculinity and femininity
represents the extent to which nations prefer gender role equality and the qualities they value.
Power distance refers to the extent less powerful members of a society accept and expect
power to be distributed unequally. Uncertainty avoidance is the degree to which individuals
feel uncomfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty. Hofstede later added a fifth dimension:
the long-short term continuum. Short-term orientation cultures put more emphasis on the
past while long-term orientation nations focus on the future.
Anxiety Uncertainty Management of Meaning Theory
Intercultural competence has been defined as appropriate and effective intercultural
communication. Intercultural competence typically encompasses three main aspects:
affective, behavioral, and cognitive processes. Gudykunst (1993) proposed the anxiety
uncertainty management of meaning (AUMM) theory to explore aspects involved in effective
communication with strangers. Uncertainty refers to the cognitive process of anticipating
others’ behaviors while anxiety refers to emotions triggered by communication with
strangers. Studies have shown uncertainty and anxiety tend to be higher when communicating
with strangers because of various factors (e.g. stereotypes, prejudice, or linguistic
competence). AUMM has been used to examine numerous aspects of intercultural
communication (e.g. intercultural friendship, organizational-public relationship, education,
health communication, or adaptation).
Face Negotiation Theory and Ethnolinguistic Identity Theory
Face negotiation theory and ethnolinguistic identity theory are two predominant identity
theories used in intercultural communication. Face negotiation Theory (FNT) examines
mechanisms associated with losing and saving face. This theory builds on the premise that
Understanding Communication Theory, by Stephen Croucher
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regardless of culture individuals try to maintain face but do so in different ways. Face is the
positive image we want others to have of ourselves and is composed of three elements: (1)
self-face is the attention paid to one’s own image, (2) other-face is the attention given to
somebody else’s image, and (3) mutual-face is the attention paid by both interlocutors to
both of their images. Facework refers to communication strategies used to build one’s own
face, and challenge or reinforce others’ face. FNT is used to identify cultural differences in
facework and provide concrete tools in conflict management.
Ethnolinguistic identity theory (ELIT) is used to examine language strategies as members of
different linguistic groups interact. ELIT builds on Tajfel and Turner’s (1979) social-identity
theory, which argues that individuals are (1) perceived in terms of group memberships (e.g.
ethnicity, religion, gender, or subculture) and (2) seek positive social identity as they compare
the groups to which they belong (ingroup) to other groups (outgroup). Ethnolinguistic
vitality is used to evaluate individuals’ strategies when interacting with members of different
groups. Three groups’ features are examined: (1) status (low or renowned), (2) demographics
(quantity, location, etc.), and (3) support (by officials, media, etc.). ELIT has for instance
been used in studies on nation-building, multilingualism, and media studies.
Cultural Adaptation Theory
Kim’s (1976, 1989, 2001) cultural adaptation theory has been widely used by intercultural
communication researchers. This theory argues that individuals go through three stages on
their way to cultural adaptation/assimilation: enculturation, deculturation, and acculturation.
This linear motion has been criticized by some researchers for not effectively addressing the
complexity of the cultural adaptation process. Gudykunst and Kim (2003) defined
assimilation as the process of cultural outsiders abandoning their cultural identities to
Understanding Communication Theory, by Stephen Croucher
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become culturally and functionally fit within their new environment. Enculturation refers to
the socialization process through which children and newcomers become familiar to the
norms of their cultural milieu. Deculturation is the process through which individuals learn
new cultural habits and question/unlearn their native cultural behaviors. Acculturation is the
final process through which individuals become familiar and adopt values and norms
significant to the host society.
Other research has focused on the relationship between the cultural adaptation process and
social media. Studies are also increasingly looking at the influence of interactions between
the host culture and immigrant groups on cultural adaptation.
Understanding Communication Theory, by Stephen Croucher
© Taylor & Francis 2015