Theories of Intercultural Communication
Ting-Toomey, S. (2004). The matrix of face: An updated face-negotiation theory. In W. B.
Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 71-92).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gudykunst, W. B. (2005). An anxiety-uncertainty management (AUM) theory of effective
communication. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural
communication (pp. 281-332). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Face Negotiation Theory – Ting-Toomey
People from collectivistic cultures with an interdependent self-image are concerned with
giving other-face or mutual-face, so they adopt a conflict style of avoiding or integrating.
People from individualistic cultures with an independent self-image are concerned with
protecting self-face, so they adopt a conflict style of dominating. (Socio-cultural and sociopsychological traditions)
This is a heuristic theory that helps explain the cultural research of Triandis (individualismcollectivism) and builds on the conflict management typology of Rahim (five conflict styles)
and the concept of face developed by Goffman. FNT is closely aligned with communication
competence. The major tenets are below, and the theory is evaluated on the next page.
Tenets
Clarification
Face concerns are universal and may be
threatened during interpersonal conflict.
During an interpersonal disagreement, we
use face work to maintain face when
threatened, restore face when lost, or give
face to others by making them look good
even if we must give in to them.
Culture influences conflict style.
Collectivists are more likely to communicate
in indirect ways (mutual-face or other-face
maintenance). Individualists engage in direct
confrontation if necessary to defend
themselves (self-face maintenance).
Self-construal is a better predictor of conflict
style than is culture.
Regardless of their home culture, individuals
who construe themselves as independent are
more likely to adopt direct conflict styles
than interdependent individuals.
Biconstrual gives competent intercultural
communicators an advantage in conflict.
Rather than using only one conflict style,
competent (adaptable) communicators
possess a wider repertoire of behavioral
options to use in different conflict situations.
To what extent does Face Negotiation Theory meet the criteria for a good objective theory?
1. Is it explanatory? The theory describes variations in communicating style across different
types of cultures, but identifies an individual’s free choice (self-construal) as the primary
determinant of conflict style.
2. Is it predictive? FNT makes some predictions about the communicating style of an
individual based on cultural and self-construal. However, predicting an individual’s behavior
in the midst of conflict is not totally reliable.
3. Is it simple? This theory is conceptually simple but addresses a level of detail not found in
all the theories we have studied.
4. Is it testable? Yes, FNT is testable and has been repeatedly examined over time by using
different experiments and surveys.
5. Does it contribute to communication competence? Competent communicators benefit
from knowing and using this theory. It addresses appropriateness (choosing acceptable
styles given the mix of cultures), effectiveness (successfully resolving conflict), and
adaptability (changing our preferred conflict style if necessary when crossing cultural
boundaries).
Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory – William Gudykunst
Cross-cultural encounters are characterized by high levels of uncertainty and anxiety,
especially when cultural variability is high. Effective communication is made possible by our
ability to mindfully manage our anxiety and reduce our uncertainty about ourselves and the
people with whom we are communicating. (Socio-cultural and Socio-psychological
traditions)
If we want to achieve effective communication (i.e., minimize misunderstanding) in crosscultural encounters, we must manage the twin threats of anxiety and uncertainty. For
Gudykunst, the key is to be mindful of ourselves, the stranger, and the cultural and
communicative differences that exist between us. This in turn enables us to thoughtfully
adapt our communication behaviors to reduce tension and potential confusion. His associate
William Howell developed the following model to illustrate the effects of mindfulness:
High Mindfulness
Low Mindfulness
Conscious Competent
Unconscious Competent
Conscious Incompetent
Unconscious Incompetent
The 34 axioms of AUM theory identify such correlations as these: Anxiety and uncertainty
are reduced in the presence of greater self-esteem, tolerance for ambiguity, perceived
power over strangers, attraction to strangers, and moral inclusiveness toward strangers.