EARLY HERESIOGRAPHICAL SCHOLARS IN RELIGIONWISSENCHAFT:
A STUDY OF MUHAMMAD ‘ABD AL-KARĪM AL-SHAHRASTĀNĪ’
AND HIS AL-MILAL WA AL-NIHAL
By
Associate Professor Dr. Muhammad Azizan Sabjan
Philosophy and Civilization Section
School of Humanities
Universiti Sains Malaysia
11800 USM, Penang
mazizan@usm.my
ABSTRACT
The nature of this study is of importance as it is a serious attempt to highlight a view of one
of the Muslim scholars who devotes much time and effort on studying other religious
traditions. His name is Abū al-Fath Muhammad Ibn ‘Abdul al-Karīm Ahmad al-Shahrastānī
(479/1086-548/1153). The present analysis thus is an attempt to evaluate the nature of the
typology of religion as exclusively developed by al-Shahrastānī. The aim is to point out how
he classifies the typology of religion and accordingly how he treats and explicates them in his
magnum opus, al-Milal wa al-Nihal. It is hoped that the study will provide a preliminary yet
clear understanding of this issue, which hopefully can deepen our knowledge on the concept
of the typology of religion as conceived by al-Shahrastānī in his al-Milal wa al-Nihal.
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INTRODUCTION
Muslim Encounter with Members of Other Religious Traditions
The Qur’ān is the Speech of Allāh (Kalām Allāh), verbatim, as the Muslims believe and
receive it. As observed by al-Attas, it is the Speech of Allāh which is revealed in a new form
of Arabic. As the Speech of Allāh revealed in a new form of Arabic, the description of His
nature therein is therefore the description of Himself by Himself in His own words according
to that linguistic form. The Arabic of the Qur’ān, its interpretation in the Tradition and its
authentic and authoritative usage throughout the ages, establishes the validity of that
language to a degree of eminence in serving to describe reality and truth. 1 Being the Speech
of Allāh, it does not only provide divine guidance to its audience, but also dispenses
references and information concerning religions, religious beliefs, norms and basic principles,
which are related to various aspects of life. Hence, it is on the basis of Qur’ānic directives
that the Muslims can devise their approach to understand other religious traditions.2
The focus of the present study will be the issue of other religious traditions as seen from the
Qur’ān and Islamic Religious Tradition, especially the typology of religion as exclusively
developed and applied by Muhammad ‘Abd al-Karīm al-Shahrastānī (d.548/1153). Needless
to say, understanding civilizations and comprehending teachings of religions lead to a
peaceful world. Chaotic scenarios faces by the world today could be lessened should mankind
truly observe the two facets. Needless to say, misconception of civilization as well as
1
2
Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam (Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC,
2001), 6, hereinafter cited as The Prolegomena.
Ibid., 118. Cf. Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud, The Educational Philosophy and Practice of Syed Muhammad
Naquib Al-Attas: An Exposition of The Original Concept of Islamization (Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1998),
344ff, hereinafter cited as The Educational Philosophy. Indeed it is only the Qur’ān that portrays
information and references concerning other religious traditions. Such recognition is acknowledged not
only by Muslim scholars, but also by Western scholars such as H.U. Weibrecht Stanton who declares, “No
scripture in the world teaches such a comparative religion as the Qur’ān.” On such a statement, see: H.U.
Weitbrecht Stanton, The Teaching of the Qur’ān (New York: Biblio and Tannen, 1969), 71.
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misunderstanding of religion is one of the major contributors to present unrest situation.
Thus, understanding the central themes of civilization and religion is vital as it leads to a
better understanding of life. Life would then be appreciated and the prejudice sentiment
towards other religions could be avoided.
History taught us many lessons. One of them is that the survival of civilization depends on its
religious system. Should the religious system is meticulously observed; the civilization will
then stand firm. Thus, preserving religious system and safeguarding it from corruption is
vital in the survival of civilization. On another note, no civilization survives without
understanding other civilization. No civilization established with weapons can take place
without ruined the one before or lasting with harmony.3 Failing to interact with other
civilization would lead to the clash of civilization. One of the leading factors of such a clash
is the misunderstanding of religion and religious system in one civilization. The remedy, as
amply attested, to lessen the clash is the continuous efforts in understanding the themes of
civilization and of different religions.4
It is in this context that the study of the typology of religion as developed by al-Shahrastānī is
significant. In short, it helps to understand other religious tradition better and this eventually
will lead to peaceful understanding among religions. Before proceeding, it is noteworthy to
initiate with al-Shahrastānī’s life and works.
The Life and Works of al-Shahrastānī.
3
4
Mert Bilgin, On civilized plurality: Mapping the clash of civilizations within the market, Futures 38 (2006)
247–260.
Noor Shakirah Mat Akhir and Muhammad Azizan Sabjan, “World Peace via Religious Tolerance with
special reference to Islam, Christianity and Buddhism,” Globalizing Religion and Culture in Asia Pacific
Conference. Adelaide: The University of Adelaide, 1-5 December 2008, hereinafter cited as the World
Peace.
3|Page
His full name as recorded by the Muslim biographers of learned men in Muslim history, is
Abū al-Fath} Muh}ammad Ibn ‘Abd al-Karīm Ibn Ah}mad Tāj al-Dīn al-Shahrastānī
(d.548/1153). His surname was Abū Muh}ammad, but he is generally known as alShahrastānī. He also receives other honorific titles such as the most meritorious man (alAfd}al) or the leader (al-Imām).
Although most of the scholars agreed that he was born in the small city of Shahrastān, yet
they have disagreed on the date of his birth. Shams al-Dīn Abū al-‘Abbās Ah}mad Ibn
Muh}ammad Ibn Khallikān (d.682/1281) states that according to his own notes, alShahrastānī was born in 469/1076 and passed away in 548/1153. However, according to ‘Abd
al-Karīm Ibn Muh}ammad al-Sam‘ānī (d.562/1166), al-Shahrastānī himself, when asked, told
him that he was born in 479/1086. Other authors give the dates 467/1074 and 469/1076 but
the testimony of al-Sam‘ānī seems the most authoritative.
After Shahrasta>ni> had received his traditional education, he moved to the prestigious
metropolis of Ni>sha>pur. There, he embarked on a detailed study of the Islamic sciences.
Most of al-Shahrastānī’s principal masters were in their turn disciples of ‘Abd al-Mālik Ibn
Yūsuf al-Juwaynī (d.478/1085). In al-Shāfī‘ī’s law (fiqh), he was the pupil of Abū Muzaffar
Ah}mad Ibn Muh}ammad al-Khawāfī (d.500/1106). He learned commentary of the Qur’ān
(tafsīr) and theology (kalām) from Abū Qāsim Salmān Ibn Nās}ir al-Ans}ārī (d. 412/1118),
and commentary of Ah}adīth from Abū al-H{assan ‘Alī Ibn Ah}mad al-Madīnī (d.
494/1100).
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In 510/1117, Shahrasta>ni> made the pilgrimage to Mecca. On his return journey, he visited
Baghdad and stayed there for three years. With strong assistance from his friend, Abu>’l
Fath} As‘ad Ibn Muh}ammad al-Mayhani> (d. 523/1129), Shahrasta>ni> then obtained a
position in Niz}a>miyyah, one of the best schools in Baghdad at that time. For three years
with considerable success, Shahrasta>ni> devoted his time to teaching, preaching and
lecturing in that very school. Later, Shahrasta>ni> was appointed as vice of the chancellery (
na>’ib Di>wa>n al-Rasa>’il ) on the strong recommendation of his friend, Nas}i>r al-Di>n
Abu>’l Qa>sim Mah}mu>d b. al-Muz}affar al-Marwazi> who was the minister (wazi>r)
from (521/1127-526/1131). However, due to a political crisis, Shahrasta>ni> left Baghdad
and returned to his native town, Shahrasta>n. It was here that Shahrasta>ni> passed away
towards the end of November 1153 (Sha‘ban 548).5
Al-Shahrastānī is responsible for a score of works which cover a wide range of Islamic
sciences including theology, philosophy and Qur’ānic sciences. Among his major works
besides al-Milal wa al-Nih}al, are those dealing with tafsīr such as al-Manāhij wa al-Āyāt,
Qis}s}at Mūsā wa-al Khid}ir, Sharh} Sūrat Yūsuf, and Mafātih} al-Asrār wa Mas}ābih} alAbrār,6 with kalām such as Mas’alah fī Ithbāt al-Jawhar al-Fard, and Nihāyat al-Iqdām fī
‘Ilm al-Kalām,7 and with philosophy such as Shubuhāt Arist}āt}ālīs wa Ibn Sīnā wa
naqd}uhā and Mus}āra‘at al-Falāsifa8. These last two works are attacks against peripatetic
philosophy as taught by Ibn Sīnā.
Al-Shahrasta>ni>, al-Milal, 1:11-12. Cf. Muh}}ammad ‘Abdul Kari>m al-Shahrasta>ni>, Muslim Sects and
Divisions: The Section on Muslim Sects in Kita>b al-Milal wa al-Nih}}al, trans. by A.K. Kazi and J.G.
Flynn (London: Kegan Paul International, 1984), 1, hereinafter cited as The Muslim Sects.
6
Muh}ammad ‘Abd al-Karīm al-Shahrāstanī, Mafātīh} al-Asrār wa Masābīh} al-Abrār, ed. by ‘Abd alMuh}sīn Jā’irī’ et al., 2 vols. (Teheran: Markaz Intishārat Nasakh Khuta, 1988).
7
Muh}ammad ‘Abd al-Karīm al-Shahrāstanī, Nihāyat al-Iqdām fī ‘Ilm al-Kalām, ed. by Alfred Guillaume
(Cairo: Maktabah al-Thaqafah al-Dīniyyah, n.d.).
8
Muh}ammad ‘Abd al-Karīm al-Shahrāstanī, Struggling with the Philosopher, A Refutation of Avicenna’s
Metaphysics: A New Arabic Edition and English Translation of Muh}ammad ‘Abd al-Karīm alShahrāstanī’s Kitāb al-Mus}āra‘a, ed. and trans. by Wilferd Madelung and Toby Mayer (London: I.B.
Tauris, 2001). For detailed accounts of his surviving works, see also for instance: Carl Brockelman,
5
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Despite these merits, al-Shahrastānī was nevertheless accused of having Shiite tendencies,
especially of in support of the Ismailites. Nonetheless, such accusations are refutable in view
of the intense piety al-Shahrastānī manifested in most of his writing. For instance, in both alMilal wa al-Nih}al and Nihāyat al-Iqdām fī ‘Ilm al-Kalām, al-Shahrastānī surveys the full
range of beliefs within Islam in order to make clear for others the nature of sectarian
differences and their deviation from the path of Islam.
Should he restrain himself from flailing at the weaknesses or excesses of sectarians, it is only
because he possesses an implicit faith in the ability of his fellow Muslims to respond to the
fair, even-handed treatment of those who differ from them. The charge that he was
preoccupied with philosophy may be admitted, but it is no exaggeration to assert that for alShahrastānī, the best of philosophy is expressed in religion, the best of religion in prophecy,
the best of prophecy in Muh}ammad (Peace Be Upon Him) and only the Muslims correctly
interpret the revelation delivered to Muh}ammad (Peace Be Upon Him).9
A number of writings have been credited to al-Shahrastānī, but the major source of his fame
is the al-Milal wa al-Nih}al, a monumental treatise on religious sects and philosophical
groups. Its popularity in the medieval period is amply attested to by the existence of
numerous studies in many libraries all over the world.
9
Geschichte Der Arabischen Litteratur, 2 volumes with 3 supplement bands (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1937),
Supplement 1:762-763.
For detailed accounts of his life and works, see for instance: Al-Shahrastānī, al-Milal, 1:11-15; Z{uhair alDīn al-Bayhaqī, Tārīkh H{ukamā’ al-Islām, ed. by Muh}ammad Kurd ‘Alī (Damascus: Majma’ al-Lughah
al-‘Arabiyyah,1946), 141-142; Khayruddīn al-Ziriklī, al-A‘lām: Qāmūs Tarājim, 8 vols. (Beirut: Dār al‘Ilm li al-Malāyīn, 1984), 6:215. See also: G. Monnot, “Al-Shahrastānī,” in Encyclopaeida of Islam, new
ed. (1997), 9:214-216; Bruce B. Lawrence, The Indian Religions, 14-15; Al-Shahrastānī, Muslim Sects and
Divisions, 1-7; and Muhammad Azizan Sabjan, al-Shahrastānī, 1-6ff.
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Al-Milal wa Al-Nih}al
In this very book, al-Shahrastānī treats all the Muslim, non-Muslim sects and several
philosophical positions known in his time with due balance and absence of vituperation. His
intention, thus, is to highlight the historical account of these sects as well as to point out their
emergence, survival and religious practices. Since his work was like a small but concise
encyclopedia, al-Shahrastānī gives fair criticism on these sects. In addition, he makes a clear
distinction between truth (h}aqq) and falsehood (bāt}il) which he expresses throughout his
presentation of the sects in this book al-Milal wa al-Nih}al.
Concerning his typology of world religious traditions and ideologies, al-Shahrastānī ranks
each non-Muslim religious tradition and ideology according to its proximity to Islam. Based
on the religious and quasi-religious groups known to him, he classifies the religious traditions
of non-Muslims into four general categories:
The first category comprises the recipients of revealed books (kitāb munzal), i.e., the Jews
and Christians. The second consists of the recipients of scrolls (s}uh}uf), i.e., the
Zoroastrians, Sabians and Manicheans. The third constitutes those who subscribe to laws and
binding judgments without the benefit of a revealed book, i.e., the ancient Sabians, and the
fourth category represents those who have neither a revealed book nor fixed laws, i.e., the
ancient as well as the materialist philosophers, the star-worshippers and the Brahmans.10
10
Details of his typology, see for instance: Muh}ammad ‘Abd al-Karīm al-Shahrastānī, al-Milal wa alNih}}al, ed. by Amīr ‘Alī Mahnā and ‘Alī H{asan Fā‘ūr, 2 vols. (Beirut: Dār al-Ma‘rifah, 1997), 1:49-50,
hereinafter cited as al-Milal. See also: Bruce B. Lawrence, Shahrastānī on the Indian Religions (The
Hague: Mouton & Co, 1976), 16-17, hereinafter cited as The Indian Religions; Muh}ammad ‘Abd alKari>m al-Shahrasta>ni>, Muslim Sects and Divisions: The Section on Muslim Sects in Kitāb al-Milal wa
al-Nih}}al, trans. by A.K. Kazi and J.G. Flynn (London: Kegan Paul International, 1984), 31, hereinafter
cited as Muslim Sects and Divisions; and Muhammad Azizan Sabjan, “Shahrastāni> on the People of the
Book (Ahl al-Kitāb), A Study of His al-Milal wa al-Nih}al” (M.A. thesis, ISTAC, 2000), 5, hereinafter
cited as al-Shahrastānī.
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Within this structure, al-Shahrastānī presents a vast range of data, as varied in quality as it is
broad in scope. He takes into account the claims and arguments of all these religiousphilosophical groups and then exhibits the irrational and illogical aspects of their ideas and
beliefs. In terms of presenting the issue under debate, he directly proceeds to the main points,
records the arguments of the opponents and then refutes them by means of his clear and
strong presentation. The way he treats the sects is also consistent and systematic. For
instance, all philosophies and religious systems that do not accept the phenomenon of
prophecy are grouped together. Judaism and Christianity, due to their closeness to Islam and
because they share with Islam their belief in God, in Prophecy and in the Scriptures, are dealt
with more comprehensively than other religious traditions and philosophical ideologies. So
far as his presentation of the religious scriptures of the Jews and Christians is concerned, his
main criterion is that a scripture, which is revealed by God, cannot be inconsistent and
contradictory in its contents and teaching.
Recognize (Iktiraf) and Respect (Hormat) and its relation with
Typology of Religion and Religious Tolerance
Recognize and respect are two different words embedded with different connotations. In a
nutshell, recognize signifies acknowledgement of someone or something whilst respect
implies due regard for the feelings or rights of others. In a simple manner, while one might respect
something, it does not mean that one has to recognize it.
Islam incontrovertibly preaches equality, peace and harmony. If there is any defect in Muslim
community, it is not because of Islam. Instead, it is due to the Muslims themselves who do
not follow the religion truly.11 Although Islam does not recognize other religions it does not
11
Noor Shakirah Mat Akhir and Muhammad Azizan Sabjan, The World Peace, p. 8.
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mean that it disrespect them. In fact, all Muslims the world over are urged to pay respect to
other religions. Likewise, other religions should respect Islam even though they do not
recognize it as a true religion. This is the missing link among the followers of religions. There
is no respect among religions.
This is where the typology of religion comes in. By constructing the typology of religion, alShahrastānī and the rest of the religionwissenchaft scholars are actually educating and
enlightening us how to comprehend other religious tradition better. Indeed Islam does not
recognize other religions as a true religion. Let alone enveloping them in one cocoon be it
pluralism or liberalism. Yet by understanding other religious tradition via the typology of
religion, Islam enlightens its adherents to have respect towards other religions. This sense of
respect sparks religious tolerance.
Religious tolerance does not require one to accept other religions as true. Religious tolerance
does not mean that one cannot compares one religion with another, or compares religion with
a secular belief system, or analyzes the scientific claims of a religion. Religious tolerance
does not necessarily mean religious indifference. World would be a much better place in
which to live if everyone were religiously tolerant. Civil unrest, mass murder, and genocide
would be greatly reduced with proper tolerance.12
12
Noor Shakirah Mat Akhir and Muhammad Azizan Sabjan, The World Peace, p. 4-5.
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Conclusion
God creates man with purpose. One of the purposes is to live in peace and harmony. As man
is diversified into racial and religions, religious tolerance is of utmost significance as it assists
man to have good reciprocal relation with others. Learning and comprehending other
religions is a gateway to religious tolerance. Although Islam passionately promotes religious
tolerance, it does not endorse religious pluralism. As amply attested to in the Quran and
Hadis, the exclusivity of Islam as the one and only true religion must be retained by all means
and at all cost. Yet in maintaining the exclusivity of Islam, it strongly advocates its followers
to respect other religions. There are many ways to establish the sense of respect towards other
religions. One of them is to decipher the typology of religion as enumerated by al-Shahrastānī
and the rest of the religionwissenchaft scholars in their heresiographical treatises. By
studying and comprehending this, one will have religious tolerance that eventually would
lead one not only to live in peace, but also promote harmony amongst the humankind.
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Selected References
Al-Attas, Syed Muh}ammad Naguib. Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam: An
Exposition of the Fundamental Elements of the Worldview of Islam. Kuala
Lumpur: ISTAC, 2001.
Al-Bayhaqī, Zuhair al-Dīn. Tarīkh H{ukamā’ al-Islām. Ed. by Muh}ammad Kurd ‘Alī.
Damshik: Majma’ al-Lughah al-‘Arabīyyah, 1988.
Al-Shahrastānī, Muh}ammad ‘Abd al-Karīm. al-Milal wa al-Nih}al. Ed. by Muh}ammad
Syed Kaylānī. 2 vols. Beirut: Dār al-Ma‘rifah, n.d.
________. Muslim Sects and Divisions: The Section on Muslim Sects in Kitāb al-Milal wa alNih}al. Trans. by A.K. Kazi and J.G. Flynn. London: Kegan Paul International,
1984.
________. al-Milal wa al-Nih}al. Ed. by Amīr ‘Alī Mahnā and ‘Alī H{assan Fā‘ūr. 2 vols.
Beirut: Dār al-Ma‘rifah, 1997.
Al-Ziriklī, Khayruddīn. al-A‘la>m: Qāmu>s Tara>jim. 8 vols. Beirut: Da>r al-‘Ilm li’l
Mala>yi>n, 1984.
Lawrence, Bruce B. Shahrastānī on the Indian Religions. The Hague: Mouton & Co, 1976.
Mert Bilgin, On civilized plurality: Mapping the clash of civilizations within the market,
Futures 38 (2006).
Muhammad Azizan Sabjan, “Shahrastāni on the People of the Book (Ahl al-Kitāb), A Study
of His al-Milal wa al-Nihal” (M.A. thesis, ISTAC, 2000),
_____________________. The People of the Book (Ahl al-Kitāb) and The People of A
Dubious Book (Ahl Shubhat Kitāb) in Islamic Religious Tradition. Penang:
Penerbit USM, 2009.
Noor Shakirah Mat Akhir and Muhammad Azizan Sabjan, “World Peace via Religious
Tolerance with special reference to Islam, Christianity and Buddhism,” Globalizing
Religion and Culture in Asia Pacific Conference. Adelaide: The University of
Adelaide, 1-5 December 2008
Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud. The Educational Philosophy of Syed Muhammad Naquib AlAttas: An Exposition Of The Original Concept Of Islamization. Kuala Lumpur:
ISTAC, 1998.
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