II. How did leaders in Europe, the United States, and Japan justify the expansion of
educational
opportunity in the 19th century? What additional types of documents would assist
in this
evaluation?
Historical background: Discussions of educational reform blossomed in France and
the United States in the 1830s and 1840s when new public school systems were launched;
Japanese discussion followed from the establishment of mass education in 1872.
1. AlbertineAdrienne Necker de Saussure’s Writings, 1838
But this part of our celestial nature which education should constantly seek to bring out, man has
scarcely taken into account. He has had this life only in view, and has shut his eyes upon whatever
limited his rights here. He has seen only the wife in the woman—in the young girl only the future
wife. All the faculties, the qualities which have no immediate relation to his interests, have seemed to
him worthless. Yet there are many of the gifts bestowed upon woman that have no relation to the
state of a wife. This state, although natural, is not necessary— perhaps half the women who now
exist, have not been, or are no longer, married. In the indigent classes, the girl who is able to maintain
herself, quits her parents, and supports herself by industry for a long time, perhaps for life, without
requiring aid from man. No social arrangements oblige her to become dependent. It is therefore
important, that education should unfold in the young girl the qualities which give the surest promise
of wisdom, happiness, usefulness, and dignity, whatever may be her lot. . . .
2. Horace Mann’s The Goals of Education, ca. 1840
One of the highest and most valuable objects, to which the influences of a school can be made conducive,
consists
in training our children to selfgovernment. . . . So tremendous, too, are the evils of anarchy and
lawlessness, that a
government by mere force, however arbitrary and cruel, has been preferable to no government. But self
government, selfcontrol, a voluntary compliance with the laws of reason and duty, have been justly
considered as
the highest point of excellence attainable by a human being. No one, however, can consciously obey the
laws of
reason and duty, until he understands them. Hence the preliminary necessity of their being clearly
explained, of their
being made to stand out, broad, lofty, and as conspicuous as a mountain against a clear sky. There may
be blind
obedience without a knowledge of the law, but only of the will of the lawgiver; but the first step towards
rational
obedience is a knowledge of the rule to be obeyed, and of the reasons on which it is founded.
3. Eliza Duffy on Education, 1874
If there is really a radical mental difference in men and women founded upon sex, you cannot educate
them alike,
however much you try. If women cannot study unremittingly, why then they will not, and you cannot
make them.
But because they do, because they choose so to do, because they will do so in spite of you, should be
accepted as
evidence that they can, and, all other things being equal, can with impunity. Instead of our race dying out
through
these women, they are the hope of the country—the women with broad chests, large limbs and full veins,
perfect
muscular and digestive systems and harmonious sexual organs, who will keep pace with men either in a
foot or an
intellectual race, who know perfectly their own powers and are not afraid to tax them to their utmost,
knowing as
they do that action generates force. These are the mothers of the coming race. . . . The result will be truly
“the
survival of the fittest.”
4. Imperial Rescript on Education, 1890
Our Imperial Ancestors have founded Our Empire on a basis broad and everlasting, and have deeply and
firmly
implanted virtue; Our subjects ever united in loyalty and filial piety have from generation to generation
illustrated
the beauty thereof. This is the glory of the fundamental character of Our Empire, and herein also lies the
source of
Our education. Ye, Our subjects, . . . pursue learning and cultivate arts; and thereby develop intellectual
faculties
and perfect moral powers; furthermore advance public good and promote common interests; always
respect the
Constitution and observe the laws; should emergency arise, offer yourselves courageously to the State;
and thus
guard and maintain the prosperity of Our Imperial Throne coeval with heaven and earth. So shall ye not
only be Our
good and faithful subjects, but render illustrious the best traditions of our forefathers.
5. Yukichi Fukuzawa’s Autobiography, 1899
In the education of the East, so often saturated with Confucian teaching, I find two things lacking; that is
to say, a lack of studies in the number and reason in material culture, and a lack of the idea of
independence in spiritual culture. But in the West I think I see why their states then are successful in
managing their national affairs, and the businessmen in theirs, and the people generally ardent in their
patriotism and happy in their family circles.
I regret that in our country I have to acknowledge that people are not formed on these two principles,
though I believe no one can escape the laws of number and reason, nor can anyone depend on anything
but the doctrine of independence as long as nations are to exist and mankind is to thrive. Japan could not
assert herself among the great nations of the world without full recognition of these two principles. And I
reasoned that Chinese philosophy as the root of education was responsible for our obvious shortcomings.