VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Authorised and published by the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority Level 1, 2 Lonsdale Street Melbourne VIC 3000 ISBN: 978-1-925264-12-8 © Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2015 No part of this publication may be reproduced except as specified under the Copyright Act 1968 or by permission from the VCAA. For more information go to: www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/aboutus/policies/policy-copyright.aspx The VCAA provides the only official, up-to-date versions of VCAA publications. Details of updates can be found on the VCAA website: www.vcaa.vic.edu.au This publication may contain copyright material belonging to a third party. Every effort has been made to contact all copyright owners. 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The VCAA logo is a registered trademark of the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 Administration .............................................................................................................................. 1 Curriculum..................................................................................................................................... 1 Developing a course ................................................................................................................... 1 Employability skills ...................................................................................................................... 6 Resources ................................................................................................................................... 6 Assessment................................................................................................................................... 6 Scope of tasks ............................................................................................................................ 8 Units 1 and 2 ............................................................................................................................... 8 Authentication ............................................................................................................................... 9 Learning activities ...................................................................................................................... 10 Unit 1: How are behaviour and mental processes shaped? ....................................................... 10 Unit 2: How do external factors influence behaviour and mental processes? ............................ 18 Appendix 1: Scientific investigation .......................................................................................... 28 Appendix 2: Defining variables .................................................................................................. 34 Appendix 3: Examples of problem-based learning approaches .............................................. 35 Appendix 4: Sample teaching plan ............................................................................................ 37 Appendix 5: Employability skills ............................................................................................... 41 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Introduction The VCE Psychology Advice for teachers handbook provides curriculum and assessment advice for Units 1 and 2. It contains advice for developing a course with examples of teaching and learning activities and resources for each unit. The course developed and delivered to students must be in accordance with the VCE Psychology Study Design Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020; Units 3 and 4: 2017–2021. Administration Advice on matters related to the administration of Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) assessment is published annually in the VCE and VCAL Administrative Handbook. Updates to matters related to the administration of VCE assessment are published in the VCAA Bulletin. Curriculum Developing a course A course outlines the nature and sequence of teaching and learning necessary for students to demonstrate achievement of the set of outcomes for a unit. The areas of study broadly describe the learning contexts and the knowledge and skills required for the demonstration of each outcome. Each outcome draws on the set of contextualised key skills for Psychology listed on pages 11 and 12 of the Study Design. The development, use and application of the key science skills must be integrated into the teaching sequence. These skills support a number of pedagogical approaches to teaching and learning including a focus on inquiry where students pose questions, explore scientific ideas, draw evidence-based conclusions and propose solutions to problems. Teachers must develop courses that include appropriate learning activities to enable students to develop the knowledge and skills identified in the outcomes in each unit. Attention should be given to designing a course of study that is relevant to students, contextually based, employs a variety though manageable number of student tasks and uses a variety of source material from a diverse number of providers. Learning activities must include investigative work that involves the collection of primary data, including laboratory and field work. Other learning activities may include investigations involving the collection of primary and/or secondary data through observational studies, self-reports, questionnaires, interviews, use of rating scales, simulations, animations and literature reviews. Investigations are integral to the study of VCE Psychology; they enable students to explore concepts through the application of scientific skills and often the scientific method. Common to different methods of scientific inquiry and learning activities are three key aspects that are central to the Study Design’s inquiry focus: asking questions, testing ideas and using evidence. ©VCAA 2015 1 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Students may work individually or as part of a group or class to complete an activity but findings, analysis and conclusions should be reported individually. If optional assessment tasks are used to cater for different student interests, teachers must ensure that they are comparable in scope and demand. Scientific inquiry focus The VCE Psychology Study Design enables students to engage with science-related issues by building their capacities to explain phenomena scientifically, design and evaluate scientific investigations, and draw evidence-based conclusions. Students see how science works as a process by undertaking their own scientific investigations that involve generating, collecting and analysing data and exploring the nature of evidence. Teachers are advised to provide students with learning opportunities that allow students to critically evaluate the stories, claims, discoveries and inventions about science they hear and read in the media and to examine the relevance of science in their everyday lives. The following table shows how students can draw links between scientific concepts studied in Units 1 and 2 and their applications in relation to issues discussed in the media: Unit Concept Issues 1 Importance of attachment. Age at which children should start school. Adult relationships. 2 Attitudes and stereotypes that may lead to prejudice and discrimination. Application of the Equal Opportunity Act. Restricted access to public facilities. Gender participation in sport. The opportunity for students to work scientifically and respond to questions is an important feature of the VCE Psychology Study Design. Questions reflect the inquiry nature of studying science and can be framed to provide contexts for developing conceptual understanding. The VCE Psychology Study Design is structured under a set of unit questions and area of study questions. These questions are open-ended to enable students to engage in critical and creative thinking about the psychology concepts identified in the key knowledge and to encourage students to ask their own questions about what they are learning. In responding to these questions, students demonstrate their own conceptual links and the relevance of different concepts to practical applications. Teachers are advised to utilise the flexibility provided by the structure of the Study Design in the choice of contexts, both local and global, and applications for enabling students to develop skills and understanding. Opportunities range from the entire class studying a particular context or application chosen by the teacher or agreed to by the class, through to students nominating their own choice of issues, scenarios, research or case studies. Appendix 3 provides examples of the use of a problem-based learning approach to develop scientific skills and understanding. ©VCAA 2015 2 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Designing scientific investigations Students undertake investigations across Units 1 and 2 in VCE Psychology. Research questions of interest may be investigated through a range of research methodologies including experimental investigations. Primary and/or secondary data should be collected in order to test hypotheses, predictions and ideas, to look for patterns, trends and relationships in data and to draw evidence-based conclusions. An experimental investigation explores whether or not there is a relationship between variables and therefore requires that students identify which variables will be investigated and which will be controlled. The following diagram represents a general process for undertaking scientific investigations: research question Topic selection phase problem definition report Reporting phase Planning phase experimental design evaluation data collection and analysis Investigation phase ©VCAA 2015 3 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Topic selection phase The selection of a suitable topic for investigation may begin with an idea or observation or question about an object, event or phenomenon. Students may have already developed a question as an extension of earlier completed work, or may be curious about a practical problem, or a particular technological development. Once the topic has been identified students articulate a research question for investigation. Questions may be generated from brainstorming. Teachers may provide a question or scaffold the development of an appropriate testable hypothesis that students can adapt and investigate. A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement that may include a prediction. An example of hypothesis formulation is included in Appendix 1. In some cases, for example in exploratory or qualitative research, a research question may not lend itself to having an accompanying hypothesis; in such cases students should work directly with their research questions. Planning phase Prior to undertaking an investigation, students should produce a plan that outlines their reasons and interest in undertaking the investigation, defines the biological concepts involved, identifies short-term goals, lists the materials and equipment required, outlines the design of any experiment, notes any anticipated problems, identifies and suggests how possible safety risks can be managed and outlines any ethical issues. In planning an experimental investigation students will formulate a hypothesis that will be tested by the collection of evidence. They may also make predictions about investigation outcomes based on their existing knowledge. Students should identify the independent, dependent and controlled variables in their experiment and discuss how changing variables may or may not affect the outcome. A detailed explanation of types of variables is provided in Appendix 2. Students should be able to explain how they expect that the evidence they collect could either refute or support their hypothesis. In planning an investigation, students may undertake relevant background reading. In addition, students should learn the correct use of scientific conventions, including how to reference sources and provide appropriate acknowledgments. Investigation phase In the investigation, students will collect primary or secondary qualitative and/or quantitative data as evidence. Data can be derived from observations, laboratory experimentation, fieldwork and local and/or global databases. During the investigation students should note any difficulties or problems encountered in collecting data. The data collected should be recorded in a form according to the plan, for subsequent analysis and relevance to the investigation. ©VCAA 2015 4 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Reporting phase An examination and analysis of the data may identify evidence of patterns, trends or relationships and may subsequently lead to an explanation of the biological phenomenon being investigated. For VCE Psychology, the analysis of experimental data requires a qualitative treatment of accuracy, precision, reliability, validity, uncertainty, and random and systematic errors. For more detailed information see Appendix 1. Students consider the data collected and make inferences from the data, report errors or problems encountered and use evidence to answer the research question. They consider how appropriate their data is in a given context, evaluate the reliability of the data and make reference to its repeatability and/or reproducibility. Types of possible errors, human bias and uncertainties in measurements, including the treatment of outliers in a set of data, should be identified and explained. For an investigation where a hypothesis has been formulated, interpretation of the evidence will either support the hypothesis or refute it, but it may also pose new questions and lead the student to revising the hypothesis or developing a new one. In reaching a conclusion the student should identify any judgments and decisions that are not based on the evidence alone but involve broader social, political, economic and ethical factors. The initial phases of the investigation (topic selection, planning and investigation) are recorded in the student logbook while the report of the investigation can take various forms including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral or a multimodal presentation of the investigation. For more detailed information on scientific investigations see Appendix 1. Maintenance of a logbook Students maintain a logbook for each of Units 1 and 2. The logbook is a record of the student’s practical and investigative work involving the collection of primary and/or secondary data. Its purposes include providing a basis for further learning, for example, contributing to class discussions about demonstrations, activities or practical work; reporting back to the class on an experiment or activity; responding to questions in a practical worksheet or problem-solving exercise; or writing up an experiment as a formal report or a scientific poster. No formal presentation format for the logbook is prescribed. The logbook may be digital or paper-based. Data may be qualitative and/or quantitative and may include the results of guided activities or investigations; planning notes for experiments; results of student-designed activities or investigations; personal reflections made during or at the conclusion of demonstrations, activities or investigations; simple observations made in short class activities; links to spreadsheet calculations or other student digital records and presentations; notes and electronic or other images taken on excursions; database extracts; web-based investigations and research, including online communications and results of simulations; surveys; interviews; and notes of any additional or supplementary work done outside class. All logbook entries must be dated and in chronological order. Investigation partners, expert advice and assistance and secondary data sources must be acknowledged and/or referenced. Teachers may use student logbooks for authentication and/or assessment purposes. ©VCAA 2015 5 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Student safety and wellbeing Teachers and students should note that this course of study provides an academic overview of psychology and does not have any clinical or diagnostic intent. As with any aspect of teaching, pastoral care and health issues should be pursued in accordance with the school’s pastoral care policy (for example, referral to the school’s counsellor). When developing courses, some issues to consider include: duty of care in relation to health and safety of students in learning activities, practical work and activities; legislative compliance (for example, information privacy, student health records and copyright); sensitivity to cultural differences and personal beliefs (for example, discussions related to external influences on behaviour); adherence to community standards and ethical guidelines (for example, maintaining confidentiality of personal details); debriefing students after completing learning activities (for example, if learning activities require a component of deception); respect for persons and sensitivity to issues arising; sensitivity to student views on the use of animals in research (for example, in the provision of alternatives to dissection). For more detail regarding relevant acts and regulations regarding student safety and wellbeing and for codes and principles regarding ethical conduct, refer to pages 8 and 9 of the Study Design. Employability skills The VCE Psychology study provides students with the opportunity to engage in a range of learning activities. In addition to demonstrating their understanding and mastery of the content and skills specific to the study, students may also develop employability skills through their learning activities. The nationally agreed employability skills are: Communication; Planning and organising; Teamwork; Problem solving; Self-management; Initiative and enterprise; Technology; and Learning. The table (Appendix 5) links those facets that may be understood and applied in a school or non-employment related setting, to the types of assessment commonly undertaken within the VCE study. Resources A list of resources is published online on the VCAA website and is updated annually. The list includes teaching, learning and assessment resources, contact details for subject associations and professional organisation. Assessment Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning. At the senior secondary level it: identifies opportunities for further learning describes student achievement articulates and maintains standards provides the basis for the award of a certificate. ©VCAA 2015 6 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 As part of VCE studies, assessment tasks enable the demonstration of the achievement of an outcome or set of outcomes for satisfactory completion of a unit The following are the principles that underpin all VCE assessment practices. These are extracted from the VCAA Principles and guidelines for the development and review of VCE Studies published on the VCAA website. VCE assessment will be valid This means that it will enable judgments to be made about demonstration of the outcomes and levels of achievement on assessment tasks fairly, in a balanced way and without adverse effects on the curriculum or for the education system. The overarching concept of validity is elaborated as follows. VCE assessment should be fair and reasonable Assessment should be acceptable to stakeholders including students, schools, government and the community. The system for assessing the progress and achievement of students must be accessible, effective, equitable, reasonable and transparent. The curriculum content to be assessed must be explicitly described to teachers in each study design and related VCAA documents. Assessment instruments should not assess learning that is outside the scope of a study design. Each assessment instrument (for example, examination, assignment, test, project, practical, oral, performance, portfolio, presentation or observational schedule) should give students clear instructions. It should be administered under conditions (degree of supervision, access to resources, notice and duration) that are substantially the same for all students undertaking that assessment. Authentication and school moderation of assessment and the processes of external review and statistical moderation are to ensure that assessment results are fair and comparable across the student cohort for that study. VCE assessment should be equitable Assessment instruments should neither privilege nor disadvantage certain groups of students or exclude others on the basis of gender, culture, linguistic background, physical disability, socioeconomic status and geographical location. Assessment instruments should be designed so that, under the same or similar conditions, they provide consistent information about student performance. This may be the case when, for example, alternatives are offered at the same time for assessment of an outcome (which could be based on a choice of context) or at a different time due to a student’s absence. VCE assessment will be balanced The set of assessment instruments used in a VCE study will be designed to provide a range of opportunities for a student to demonstrate in different contexts and modes the knowledge, skills, understanding and capacities set out in the curriculum. This assessment will also provide the opportunity for students to demonstrate different levels of achievement specified by suitable criteria, descriptors, rubrics or marking schemes. Judgment about student level of achievement should be based on the results from a variety of practical and theoretical situations and contexts relevant to a study. Students may be required to respond in written, oral, performance, product, folio, multimedia or other suitable modes as applicable to the distinctive nature of a study or group of related studies. VCE assessment will be efficient The minimum number of assessments for teachers and assessors to make a robust judgment about each student’s progress and learning will be set out in the study design. Each assessment instrument must balance the demands of precision with those of efficiency. Assessment should not generate workload and/or stress that unduly diminish the performance of students under fair and reasonable circumstances. ©VCAA 2015 7 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Scope of tasks For Units 1–4 in all VCE studies assessment tasks must be a part of the regular teaching and learning program and must not unduly add to the workload associated with that program. They must be completed mainly in class and within a limited timeframe. Points to consider in developing an assessment task: 1. List the key knowledge and key skills. 2. Choose the assessment task where there is a range of options listed in the Study Design. It is possible for students in the same class to undertake different options; however, teachers must ensure that the tasks are comparable in scope and demand. 3. Identify the qualities and characteristics that you are looking for in a student response and design the criteria and a marking scheme 4. Identify the nature and sequence of teaching and learning activities to cover the key knowledge and key skills outlined in the Study Design and provide for different learning styles. 5. Decide the most appropriate time to set the task. This decision is the result of several considerations including: the estimated time it will take to cover the key knowledge and key skills for the outcome the possible need to provide a practice, indicative task the likely length of time required for students to complete the task when tasks are being conducted in other studies and the workload implications for students. Units 1 and 2 The student’s level of achievement in Units 1 and 2 is a matter for school decision. Assessments of levels of achievement for these units will not be reported to the VCAA. Schools may choose to report levels of achievement using grades, descriptive statements or other indicators. In each VCE study at Units 1 and 2, teachers determine the assessment tasks to be used for each outcome in accordance with the study design. Teachers should select a variety of assessment tasks for their program to reflect the key knowledge and key skills being assessed and to provide for different learning styles. Tasks do not have to be lengthy to make a decision about student demonstration of achievement of an outcome. A number of options are provided in each study design to encourage use of a broad range of assessment activities. Teachers can exercise great flexibility when devising assessment tasks at this level, within the parameters of the study design. Note that more than one assessment task can be used to assess satisfactory completion of each outcome in the units. There is no requirement to teach the areas of study in the order in which they appear in the units in the Study Design. ©VCAA 2015 8 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Authentication Teachers should have in place strategies for ensuring that work submitted for assessment is the student’s own. Where aspects of tasks for school-based assessment are completed outside class time teachers must monitor and record each student’s progress through to completion. This requires regular sightings of the work by the teacher and the keeping of records. The teacher may consider it appropriate to ask the student to demonstrate his/her understanding of the task at the time of submission of the work. If any part of the work cannot be authenticated, then the matter should be dealt with as a breach of rules. To reduce the possibility of authentication problems arising, or being difficult to resolve, the following strategies are useful: Ensure that tasks are kept secure prior to administration, to avoid unauthorised release to students and compromising the assessment. They should not be sent by mail or electronically without due care. Ensure that a significant amount of classroom time is spent on the task so that the teacher is familiar with each student’s work and can regularly monitor and discuss aspects of the work with the student. Ensure that students document the specific development stages of work, starting with an early part of the task such as topic choice, list of resources and/or preliminary research. Filing of copies of each student’s work at given stages in its development. Regular rotation of topics from year to year to ensure that students are unable to use student work from the previous year. Where there is more than one class of a particular study in the school, the VCAA expects the school to apply internal moderation/cross-marking procedures to ensure consistency of assessment between teachers. Teachers are advised to apply the same approach to authentication and record-keeping, as cross-marking sometimes reveals possible breaches of authentication. Early liaison on topics, and sharing of draft student work between teachers, enables earlier identification of possible authentication problems and the implementation of appropriate action. Encourage students to acknowledge tutors, if they have them, and to discuss and show the work done with tutors. Ideally, liaison between the class teacher and the tutor can provide the maximum benefit for the student and ensure that the tutor is aware of the authentication requirements. Similar advice applies if students receive regular help from a family member. ©VCAA 2015 9 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Learning activities Unit 1: How are behaviour and mental processes shaped? Area of Study 1: How does the brain function? Outcome 1: Examples of learning activities Describe how understanding of brain structure and function has changed over time, explain how different areas of the brain coordinate different functions, and explain how brain plasticity and brain damage can change psychological functioning. design and conduct an investigation to test the capacity of phrenology to predict personality use a PMI (pluses, minuses, interesting) chart to analyse how each of the different approaches over time has contributed to understanding the structure and function of the brain use a Socratic seminar with one person representing the issues on each side of: brain versus heart debate; mind-body problem; the value of phrenology; the value of the first brain experiments; the value of neuroimaging techniques, to discuss the contribution each approach has made or not made to understanding the role of the brain develop hypotheses for the following research questions: Does playing video games improve memory/ affect concentration? Does extra-sensory perception exist? Does listening to music affect personality? Are people who play musical instruments more creative/ analytical than people who do not play an instrument? Are people who play sport more or less emotional than people who do not play a sport? Do younger people learn faster than older people? using a ‘storyboard’ graphic organiser, outline the contributions of selected studies to understanding the role of the brain; include new knowledge about the brain’s structure and function create a model of a neuron clearly showing its key components produce a diagram/poster of a neuron with labelled parts prepare a written and pictorial summary of the main processes involved in the transmission of a neural impulse visit the Melbourne Museum to view ‘The Mind’ exhibition in the Mind and Body Gallery (www.museumvictoria.com.au) draw a diagram of the human brain and parts of the nervous system, labelling the two hemispheres, the four lobes of the cerebral cortex; describe the roles of each part model the human brain using physical models, analogies and comparative anatomy dissect a sheep’s brain: identify the hindbrain, midbrain and the forebrain (lamb’s brains may be purchased from supermarkets or from a butcher) or conduct a virtual dissection through the Whole Brain Atlas website create a multimedia simulation of the structure and function of the brain use clay or other similar material to construct a 3-D model of the brain using different colours to code for different brain structures; develop a key to explain the function of each structure make a ‘brain hat’ using plasticine, papier mache, a hollowed-out half ©VCAA 2015 10 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 ©VCAA 2015 watermelon rind or other suitable modelling materials and label the external features and sections of the brain; work in groups to produce plans for an adaptation of the ‘brain hat’ that shows vertical and horizontal crosssections of the brain use the Answer Key from Tony Ryan’s ‘Thinkers’ Keys’ to list the names of the various structures within the brain and then construct questions relating to the structure and function of each of the names supplied debate: ‘Artificial intelligence has limited capacity’ list the main functions of the spinal cord; investigate how injury or disease involving the spinal cord affects functionality create a chart of the divisions of the nervous system including central nervous system and both divisions of the peripheral nervous system construct a concept map depicting the roles of the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system and the autonomic nervous system provide examples of the effects of each division of the autonomic nervous system on: heart rate; galvanic skin response; pupils; bladder; lungs; digestion use multimedia CD-ROMs (such as PsykTrek and PsychNow) to explore the divisions of the nervous system and lobes of the cerebral cortex create a folio of a range of related experiments and activities exploring the nervous system as outlined in ‘Neuroscience for Kids’ (www.faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html) visit the Psychworld University website at http://inst.santafe.cc.fl.us/~mwehr/ or visit the ‘Neuroscience for Kids’ website for activities and tutorials to collect information to explain the role of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system produce a poster outlining the areas and main roles of the central and peripheral nervous systems in pairs, use chalk and concrete (outdoors) or butchers paper and textas (indoors), to trace a life-sized outline of each other’s body; each student uses their own outline to fill in each division of the human nervous system, using a different colour for each division; labels should be added that indicate the function of each of the divisions explore mechanisms involved in synapse formation/pruning, the action of neurotransmitters, and brain plasticity as outlined in ‘Neuroscience for Kids’ (www.faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html) use neural mechanisms to discuss the questions: ‘How is a thought formed?’ and ‘Where does a thought go when it is forgotten?’ divide the class into six groups; each group researches the development of myelin, synaptic pruning and frontal lobe development in infancy and adolescence; each group then presents their examples to the class; other class members use a data sheet to record information and responses demonstrate human brain plasticity using mirror drawing visit the Melbourne Zoo and complete the ‘Mere Monkeys’ program to examine the use of animals in research and the collection of qualitative and quantitative data use photographs from the internet to compare the human brain to the brain structures of other mammals such as a sheep and a mouse discuss Stephen Hawking’s quote: ‘We are just an advanced breed of monkeys on a minor planet of a very average star. But we can understand the Universe. That makes us very special.’ Der Spiegel (17 October 1988), 11 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 thinking about the role of the cerebral cortex in human functioning investigate whether some languages are easier to learn than others research the psychology behind different rehabilitation techniques used for people with acquired brain injuries prepare a pamphlet that explains the cause of a neurological disorder, for example Parkinson’s disease Detailed example Aims: construct a model of the human brain using clay or a similar material (Part A) evaluate analogies for the structure of the brain (Part B) compare the structure of a human brain with that of a sheep or mouse (Part C) Part A Modelling the human brain Materials: textbook diagrams, internet models or other pictures of the brain, clay (or plasticine, playdough, papier mache), black pen, paint colours, sharp instrument, piece of paper. Method: provide students with the following directions: Refer to pictures of the brain to shape the clay into a model of the brain. When modelling the brain use the sharp instrument to model major fissures, gyri and sulci. When the clay brain is dry, use different colours to map out the hind brain, midbrain and forebrain. Also identify the four lobes of the cerebral cortex and the primary cortex for each of these lobes. Use a fine black pen to number the locations of chosen brain structures Create a key for the brain model. Students discuss and then summarise their findings in their logbooks. They could include digital photographs of their brain models. They should: Note the similarities and differences between different parts of the brain. Identify the strengths and limitations of their brain model. Consider one aspect of brain structure which could not be represented by their model and suggest a way that this feature could be modelled or represented. Conclusion: As a class, discuss and reflect on the ability of scientific models, such as their models of the brain, to organise and understand observed phenomena. Note: This activity could also be adapted to create a model of a neuron. Part B: Analogies for brain structure Analogies are often used in science to describe phenomena and concepts. This activity explores one analogy for brain structure. Tasks: 1. Undertake research to describe how the following are analogous to parts of the brain: a cabbage a raisin a pillowcase string cheese a walnut a grapefruit an avocado 2. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the use of analogies in describing brain structure. ©VCAA 2015 12 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 3. Suggest how analogies may be used to describe brain function. Part C: Comparison of human, mouse and sheep brains In groups, provide students with images of a human brain and another mammalian brain typically used in psychological research (for example, sheep or mouse). Alternatively, you could ask each group to find their own images of the brain for each animal. Using these images and a data sheet, ask students to record the differences in the structure of the hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain of each brain. You may also allow them to consult other sources of information to complete this structural comparison, for example the size or weight of each structure. Then ask groups to discuss the ability of scientific models developed using animals brains to organise and understand observed phenomena and concepts related to human psychological functioning. Ask them to consider the questions: Why might using models and photographs of such animals’ brains be useful? What might researchers need to consider when using animal models to research particular neurological disorders? Extension activity: Students work in groups to choose a particular human neurological condition (for example, Parkinson’s disease) and research how animal models have been used to develop human models for the disorder. Area of Study 2: What influences psychological development? Outcome 2: Examples of learning activities Identify the varying influences of nature and nurture on a person’s psychological development, and explain different factors that may lead to typical or atypical psychological development. analyse twin and adoption studies to examine the influence of environmental factors on development, focusing on the elements involved in the research design of such twin and adoption studies use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast the contribution of twin and adoption studies to the understanding of hereditary and environmental factors watch a video or YouTube production examining the nature versus nurture debate, then conduct a class debate on the interaction between heredity and environmental factors in influencing psychological development watch and analyse the ‘7 up series’ as an example of a longitudinal study and the changes that occur during childhood and adolescence visit the Melbourne Zoo and complete the ‘Mere Monkeys’ program to examine the use of animals in research and the collection of qualitative and quantitative data use Piaget’s theory to design, construct, test and report on a toy for a young child analyse Piaget’s theory and use a decision chart to provide a three-point criticism of the theory in light of more recent research complete a tri-Venn diagram outlining the emotional, cognitive, and psychosocial development of a particular age group, for example a five-year-old child use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast the role of critical and sensitive periods in psychological development in groups, choose an aspect of psychological development (for example, language) and investigate the role that critical and sensitive periods have in that aspect of development; each group role plays the outcomes of their ©VCAA 2015 13 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 ©VCAA 2015 investigation to the rest of the class use a flow-chart graphic organiser to explain the key scientific steps in a chosen study conducted by Harlow and/or Ainsworth visit the Dax Collection (Kenneth Myer Building, Royal Parade: www.daxcentre.org/collection/) to examine the conceptualisation of normality, nature of mental illness, safety and wellbeing, ethics, and legislative issues; note at least one accompanying teacher must have completed an authorised workshop prior to the visit obtain statistics from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (www.abs.gov.au) related to the incidence of mental illness across the lifespan; present this data using appropriate statistics select a mental illness/disorder relating to a particular stage of the lifespan and complete a brochure/pamphlet outlining the prevalence, age of onset, symptoms, treatment and agencies/places to get help design a poster describing the facts and misconceptions about mental illness; discuss how ‘facts’ can be distinguished form ‘misconceptions’ conduct a class debate about appropriate school starting age using research relating to the emotional, cognitive and psycho-social development of children complete an essay or a poster outlining the influence of television and computer games on the psychosocial development of an individual assuming that the class is an ethics committee, decide whether classic studies investigating psychological development should be approved for research in today’s society; use a decision-making flowchart to suggest how these studies could be improved to meet today’s ethical standards create a graphic organiser that compares mental health and mental illness discuss why sensitivity is important when discussing concepts such as ‘normality’ and mental illness use a ‘fish-bone’ graphic organiser to understanding the conceptualisation of normality use multimedia CD-ROMs (such as PsykTrek and PsychNow) to explore systems of classification of mental conditions and disorders create a mental wellness poster organise guest speakers on the topic of mental health; begin with your school psychologist or counsellor and consider inviting local mental health workers view the video series: Collected Thoughts 1,2 3 (produced by the Dax Collection) and reflect on the experience of mental illness for a broad audience ask the school counsellor to speak to the class about the mood disorder major depression and the support available for people that may be suffering from this disorder visit the Mental Illness Fellowship of Australia website (www.mifellowshipaustralia.org.au/) and evaluate their factsheets (Understanding depression; Understanding anxiety; Understanding schizophrenia) in terms of the information contained and the level of detail presented relative to the knowledge required of a Unit 1 Psychology student; work in groups/pairs/individuals to adjust a chosen factsheet to suit the level of a Unit 1 Psychology student use a graphic organiser to understand the major categories of psychological disorder 14 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 use a Socratic seminar with one person representing: typical behaviours; atypical behaviours; adaptative behaviours; maladaptive behaviours; mental health; and mental disorder, and discuss how normality may be conceptualised interview an elderly person to determine whether they believe personality can change over a lifespan; report your results as a short personality profile of the interviewee choose one of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development; use a decision-making tree graphic organiser to consider the positive and negative outcomes that could result from the crises in that stage in relation to healthy personality development use a PMI chart to consider the strengths and limitation of Erikson’s psychological theory of development as a model for explaining a person’s personality imagine that you are Piaget; develop a consent form for one of his tests of cognitive development that would satisfy today’s ethical requirements conduct the tests of cognitive development described by Piaget on a young child, adhering to appropriate ethical requirements use a media article such as http://news.sciencemag.org/2013/02/one-twopunch-infection-stress-may-lead-schizophrenia to consider the accuracy of the scientific information included; re-write the article so that a general adolescent aged 15 to 17 could understand the concepts involved Detailed example GRAPHIC ORGANISER OF MENTAL DISORDERS Aim: To use a graphic organiser, for example a lotus-diagram or mind map, to explain the major categories of psychological disorder. Method: Students should be provided with the following prompts: On your graphic organiser, put mental disorder in the centre. For the first group of radiating concepts, include the major categories of psychological disorder. For the second group of radiating concepts, ask students to consider major biological, psychological and social factors that contribute to the development of each disorder. For the third group of radiating concepts, ask students to consider the treatment and support options that are available for each disorder. Discussion: Students should then be encouraged to share their completed graphic organiser with the class. Class discussion could then encompass differences between student’s graphic organisers, conceptualisations of normality and how particular conceptualisations of normality have informed the construction of their graphic organiser. ©VCAA 2015 15 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Area of Study 3: Student-directed research investigation Outcome 3: Examples of learning activities Investigate and communicate a substantiated response to a question related to brain function and/or development, including reference to at least two contemporary psychological studies and/or research techniques. the teacher provides a list of possible research questions from pages 16–17 of the VCE Psychology Study Design; students submit a proposed timeline and research plan related to a research question of interest; a negotiated research question is undertaken by the student and monitored by the teacher groups of students investigate a selected and/or negotiated research question from the set of possible questions on pages 16–17 of the VCE Psychology Study Design; each member of the group contributes a nominated newspaper item related to the research question in a class psychology e-newspaper (for example, letter to the editor, a report of a psychological issue, survey results from a public opinion poll related to a psychological issue, a cartoon about a psychological issue, interviews with a psychologist, neuroscientist or other psychological professional) the teacher selects questions from each of the six topic areas listed on pages 16–17 of the VCE Psychology Study Design that have a ‘case study’ theme; students work individually or in groups to provide a response to the case study using an inquiry approach; sample questions in this category include: How can brain trauma in injuries affect cognitive function? How has the treatment of mental illness changed over time? How are different neuroimaging techniques used to study brain structure and function? How does foetal alcohol syndrome affect nervous system functioning? the teacher selects questions from each of the six topic areas listed on pages 16–17 of the VCE Psychology Study Design that have an ‘experimental’ theme; students work individually or in groups to provide a response to investigate the research question of interest; sample questions in this category include: Are ‘brain training’ programs effective? Does the use of technology prior to sleeping change sleeping patterns? Are emotions contagious? Detailed example AN INQUIRY APPROACH TO EXPLORING A CASE STUDY IN PSYCHOLOGY The research investigation in this area of study must build on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 2 Area of Study 1 and/or Area of Study 2. The focus is on students being able to communicate a response to a selected research question. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account number of students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration: To whom will students be expected to communicate their results? What alternative communication formats will students be able to consider? To what extent will students work on their research and response inside and outside class time, and how will student work be monitored and authenticated? Will time be allocated in class for students to present their work to other students? Background information This detailed example has been developed with an inquiry-based framework in mind. There are many methods by which students may undertake inquiry-based learning; this detailed example has been informed by the following article by Jeni Wilson and Kath Murdoch: http://extranetportal.bne.catholic.edu.au/re/REL/Documents/CU8%20What%20is%20inquiry%20learning.pdf In essence, the inquiry process involves a question, a hypothesis, data collection and analysis, drawing conclusions, making generalisations, reflection and authentic action. The process of answering their question ©VCAA 2015 16 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 should involve students considering prior knowledge to gather new ideas. Students should then gather new information (for case studies, this will mostly involve secondary data; however, some primary data may also be collected) and organise this information into new ideas. They will then draw conclusions, reflect upon their learning and also take some sort of personal action related to a specific outcome and audience to conclude their investigation. Question selection phase In order to manage the inquiry process in the class, the teacher determined that students in the class could work independently or in groups to research one of four questions related to content across Unit 1 Area of Study 1 and Area of Study 2: How can brain trauma in injuries affect cognitive function? How has the treatment of mental illness changed over time? How are different neuroimaging techniques used to study brain structure and function? How does foetal alcohol syndrome affect nervous system functioning? The teacher provided relevant case studies related to these questions, but students were also able to research and provide their own case study of interest. The task involved students investigating the psychological aspects of the case study and responding to the case study by developing a relevant media product (such as an information pamphlet, YouTube video, multimedia product or community campaign) for a selected audience. Planning phase Communication of psychological concepts is the major focus of this task. Students should be clear about the purpose of the intended communication to a specified audience. Students may need guidance in considering appropriate communication formats for specific audiences. Teachers should work with students to: set timeframes and milestones for the task determine the nature of the work that is to be completed inside and outside the classroom ensure that ethical guidelines are followed such as confidentiality and respect for persons with and sensitivity to issues around psychological disorders, particularly if the research involves conducting surveys or interviews to collect data check the scientific accuracy of content prior to students working on the response (communication) phase. Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases. Students may subsequently adapt the template as a personal work plan in their logbooks. Investigation phase It is important that students structure the research component into a set of manageable tasks that constitute a personal work program. Work in this phase can be done outside the classroom and recorded in students’ logbooks, with class time allocated to check on progress and the quality of material being researched. This activity provides students with opportunities to learn how to document resources and acknowledge contributions using standard conventions. Reporting phase Students could use a variety of formats to present their response to the investigation question to a specific audience. Teachers may wish to limit the number of formats used and to set time and/or word limits. The response communication should clearly address the question, demonstrate that the student understands the relevant psychological concepts and be appropriate for the nominated audience. ©VCAA 2015 17 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Unit 2: How do external factors influence behaviour and mental processes? Area of Study 1: What influences a person’s perception of the world? Outcome 1: Examples of learning activities Compare the sensations and perceptions of vision and taste, and analyse factors that may lead to the occurrence of perceptual distortions. undertake an eye dissection, examining the main structures and components of the eye participate in activities that illustrate phenomena in the visual perception system, for example locating the blind spot, producing a negative afterimage undertake activities from the Neuroscience for Kids website at http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chvision.html that illustrate phenomena in the visual perception system undertake the Ishihara test for colour blindness and explain how these tests relate to the sensation and perception of visual stimuli use a graphic organiser of choice to illustrate the processes of sensation and perception of visual information discuss Cristina Marrero’s quote: ‘The Scientific Method is a wonderful tool as long as you don’t care which way the outcome turns; however, this process fails the second one’s perception interferes with the interpretation of data. This is why I don’t take anything in life as an absolute…even if someone can ‘prove’ it ‘scientifically’.’ use a ray box to demonstrate the concept of accommodation use a pen to demonstrate the concept of convergence: focus on the tip of the pen and move the pen closer to the nose; notice the change in muscular tension in the eye as the pen moves closer to the nose; an observer can record what happens to the eyes as the experimenter tries to keep the pen tip in focus as the pen moves toward their eye participate in activities that involve focusing on ‘magic eye’ artworks investigate artworks involving visual illusion, for example Escher’s tesselations consider how monocular depth cues are used to create the perception of depth and the appearance of three dimensions in a chosen artwork participate in activities that involve using 3D glasses take photographs of symbols from the everyday world (for example, at work, on the way home from school, during weekend activities); in groups, present the symbols and describe how Gestalt principles are used to create meaningful perception of the images conduct a practical activity based on the Stroop effect participate in activities that demonstrate inattentional blindness/change blindness undertake an adapted version of the ‘Investigating Eyesight’ lesson plan from the Surfing Scientist (available from www.abc.net.au/science/surfingscientist/lessonplans/) analyse ambiguous figures to understand the effect of psychological and social factors on visual perception comment on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s quote from The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes that: ‘You see but you do not observe’ in terms of visual perception, attention and distortion of perception ©VCAA 2015 18 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 research journal articles relating to taste, for example Plassmann et al. (2007) ‘Marketing actions can modulate neural representations of experience pleasantness’ (full-text available at www.pnas.org/content/105/3/1050.full), to develop an information campaign that informs others of the influence of marketing as a psychological factor on the perception of taste complete a flow chart identifying the key scientific components relating to taste; see journal articles, for example McClure et al. (2004) ‘Neural correlates of behavioural preference for culturally familiar drinks’ (full-text available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.019) create an online blog that reflects on practical activities relating to taste undertake an adapted version of the taste illusion lesson plan from the Surfing Scientist (available from www.abc.net.au/science/surfingscientist/lessonplans/) design and undertake investigations relating to taste receptors for sweet, sour, salty, bitter and savoury investigate the evidence supporting a sixth taste receptor, that of ‘fat’ compare fMRI images of people with synaesthesia to people without synaesthesia to understand differences in brain activity of people with synaesthesia undertake experiments that examine the influence of factors such as colour, temperature, colour intensity, sight and olfaction on the perception of taste sensations including sweet, sour, salty, bitter and savoury design and conduct an investigation that examines psychological factors such as the effect of labelling and/or price and/or package design on the perceived pleasantness of particular foods analyse the scientific concepts and techniques used in a media article that looks at factors that influence the sensation and perception of taste, for example articles from Foodnavigtor.com including: Olfaction’s role in taste is powerful, confirms new ‘dual sense’ research (www.foodnavigator.com/Science/Olfaction-s-role-in-taste-is-powerfulconfirms-new-dual-sense-research) Taste, aroma perception influenced by familiarity, says study (www.foodnavigator.com/Science/Taste-aroma-perception-influencedby-familiarity-says-study) Dislike of veggies is in the genes (www.foodnavigator.com/Science/Dislike-of-veggies-is-in-the-genes) or use one of the articles from Foodnavigator.com as stimulus for develop a practical investigation to investigate taste perception comment on Robert M. Pirsig’s quote from Zen and the art of Motorcycle Maintenance, 1974, that ‘For every fact there is an infinity of hypotheses’ ©VCAA 2015 19 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Detailed example REFLECTIVE BLOG: WHAT INFLUENCES A PERSON’S SENSATION AND PERCEPTION OF TASTE? This task is staged over a few weeks of class time and involves students undertaking a series of practical activities as part of the regular teaching and learning program for Unit 2 Area of Study 1. Students create an online blog that includes a selection of these relevant practical activities that enables them to compare the sensations and perceptions of taste and analyse the factors that may lead to the occurrence of perceptual distortions of taste. For each practical activity, students may be asked to formulate hypotheses or make predictions in relation to sensation and perception. They will undertake investigations relating to human taste that involve the collection and recording of data, analysis of data and the methods used to draw evidence-based conclusions relating to their investigations, and identification of associated scientific theories and models. In this example, the chosen format for communication of their scientific ideas is an online reflective blog (using a selected blogging website of choice such as Global2.vic.edu.au). The practical activities may involve the student conducting an experiment, being a participant in an experiment or acting as an observer in an experiment. The student may be involved in these activities individually, or as one student in a small group, or as a member of the whole class. The key knowledge to be addressed includes the processes involved in sensation and perception: taste as an example of human sensory systems; biological, psychological and social factors that influence gustatory perception; and the fallibility of gustatory perception systems. At the time of undertaking each practical activity, the student should record the details of the activity in their journal/on their blog. Students could be encouraged to take digital photographs to record the data as evidence of their participation in the practical activities and upload these under the relevant blog entries. Suggestions for practical activities that could be undertaken by students as part of this reflective learning journal/blog include: influence of colour intensity of different drinks on their perceived sweetness influence of being blind folded on correct flavour identification of different flavoured drinks judgment of perceived crispiness of food based on noisiness of packaging influence of temperature on perceived sweetness influence of brand labels and no labels on perceived taste preference changes in salt sensitivity with age influence of stress on ability to distinguish different flavours/tastes influence of the Delboeuf illusion on satiety influence of temperature on perceived bitterness influence of price on perceived taste preference effect of nose-holding on the perception of taste. The student reflects upon the practical activities undertaken in terms of the overall research question. The teacher may decide whether to provide a set of guiding questions to assist student reflections or whether to allow students to make their own reflections based on a general question or related to a specific aspect of the area of study. The teacher should also determine when the reflections are to be completed, for example immediately after each practical activity, or after a series of practical activities, or in a block at the end of the area of study. ©VCAA 2015 20 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Area of Study 2: How are people influenced to behave in particular ways? Outcome 2: Examples of learning activities Identify factors that influence individuals to behave in specific ways, and analyse ways in which others can influence individuals to behave differently. create a visual presentation to identify factors that contribute to attitude change, for example reduction in prejudice obtain a marketing survey and evaluate how it attempts to measure attitudes analyse a series of opinion polls published in the major metropolitan newspapers; consider how quantitative and qualitative data is used to support the purpose of the survey and consider the validity of the conclusions drawn from such data select a media article which presents a particular viewpoint on a current issue; construct a graphic organiser which identifies possible social factors which may have contributed to the attitudes evident in the article visit the Dax Collection (Kenneth Myer Building, Royal Parade: www.daxcentre.org/collection/) to investigate attitudes and stigma design, conduct and report on an investigation related to the prevalence of stereotypes associated with gender or culture (for example, leisure interests, food preferences) as a class, develop and administer a 20-item survey that attempts to measure attitudes on a class-determined issue; report on the results of the survey, including a summary of how survey items were developed, selected and edited, and a survey conclusion provide examples of surveys where it would be more appropriate to use each of the following types of survey items: Likert-type scales, dichotomous or ordinal questions view The Angry Eye with Jane Elliot (seminars on racial prejudice, 2001, 51 min, Video Education Australasia); or view Australian Blue Eyed (2001) to demonstrate the power of social influence and factors which contribute to prejudice view episodes of Go back to where you came from, an SBS television series, considering the role that person perception, attributions, attitudes and stereotypes may have in the development of prejudice and discrimination; alternatively, consider the influence that a series such as Go back to where you came from may have on individual and group behaviour and the role that strategies such as cognitive interventions can play in changing individual attitudes and behaviours examine the Victorian Equal Opportunity Act (2010) www.legislation.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/PubLawToday.nsf/a12f6f6 0fbd56800ca256de500201e54/5c0e606e76b324c7ca25796d0014de79!OpenDoc ument to consider what the act says in terms of prejudice and discrimination; identify the societal attitudes that are reflected in the document; look at an older version of the act (for example, Equal Opportunity Act 1995 from: www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/repealed_act/eoa1995250/) and identify any changes in attitudes between these documents take a virtual tour of the Stanford Prison Experiment website, which features an extensive slideshow and information about this classic psychology experiment (www.prisonexp.org); discuss the ethics of the study search the internet to investigate the Kitty Genovese case in relation to the bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility (also available on ©VCAA 2015 21 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 ©VCAA 2015 PsychNow CD-ROM) research Stanley Milgram on the internet and summarise the ethical issues highlighted by his research research Solomon Asch on the internet and summarise the effect of group size on the tendency to conform use media articles on global politics to identify sources of power in terms of legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, information and referent power design, conduct and report on an investigation to explore the relationship between group size and social loafing in the context of meetings; the report should include commentary on the difficulties associated with judging social loafing design, conduct and report on an investigation into the influences of helping behaviour view the film Remember the Titans (2000); examine factors which contribute to the development of prejudice, and the factors which may help to reduce prejudice and discrimination view the film Coach Carter (2005); consider the attitudes displayed by key characters in terms of the tri-component model of attitudes as well as the role person perception, attributions, attitudes and stereotypes played in the key events that occurred within the movie use project-based learning to address an issue relating to prejudice, discrimination, bullying and negative influences of media develop a Likert-type scale and administer it to a range of age groups in order to investigate and report on the relationship between prejudice and age use a spreadsheet application or a graphics calculator to create scatterplots of age and attitude scores to investigate variations in prejudice with age develop and administer a Likert-type scale to investigate and report on gender differences in attitudes to an issue raised in the media in groups investigate a selected issue relating to either prejudice, discrimination, bullying, advertising, television, video games or social media; each member of the group contributes a nominated newspaper item related to the issue; the group presents the issue in a form for an enewsletter, for example a letter to the editor, a report on solutions to the issue, survey results from a public opinion poll related to an aspect of the issue, cartoon based on the issue, interviews with stakeholders; a class enewsletter is formed out of all the presentations as a whole class, explore a single, local issue related to prejudice and discrimination through a Q&A panel role-play; communicate responses orally (as a nominated stakeholder) and in written form (from a different stakeholder perspective to that presented in the oral communication) collect media articles on issues of prejudice and discrimination (for example, age, gender, race, culture, sexuality, pregnancy/ breastfeeding); examine what Victorian/Australian law states in relation to these areas; consider the language and images (if any) used in the article and discuss how the media article has been designed to influence individual or group behaviour working in groups of four, select and analyse one program designed to help deal with bullying either at school or in the workforce; present this to the class in the form of a role-play to show how the program would work and to explain the psychological basis of the expected effectiveness of the program; programs might include: ‘Bully Stoppers’ 22 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 (www.education.vic.gov.au/about/programs/bullystoppers/Pages/default.a spx) or ‘Bullying. No Way! (http://bullyingnoway.gov.au/) divide the class into teams to research a different media influence on individual and group behaviour; each team should create a multimedia presentation and report findings to the class consider the influence advertising and marketing has on eating behaviours in young children consider the influence that media, including the nature and prevalence of advertising material, has on gambling behaviour Detailed example PROJECT-BASED LEARNING TO EXPLORE AN ISSUE RELATING TO PREJUDICE, DISCRIMINATION, BULLYING AND THE NEGATIVE INFLUENCES OF MEDIA Aim: To use a Project Based Learning (PBL) approach to investigate research questions relating to prejudice, discrimination, bullying and the negative influence of media. Introduction: Students work in small groups to undertake an in-depth inquiry into one question relating to prejudice, discrimination, bullying and negative influences of media and create, compose or produce a product for an authentic audience. Teaching notes: This detailed example draws on the principles of PBL developed by the Buck Institute for Education (http://bie.org/about). A PBL approach begins with an open-ended question, which is ideally provocative and engaging so that it captures students’ interest. Students investigate this question and brainstorm possible solutions, learning relevant content during the process. They then apply their learning in creative ways to produce, demonstrate or perform something, advocate for a policy or solution, or teach something to others, practising their communication skills in the process. Each student-centred project is broken down into three main stages, which can overlap in time frame: inquire/discover/research create/compose/produce present/share/promote Overall four questions relating to prejudice, discrimination, bullying and negative influences of the media are required for investigation. Teachers may provide these questions or develop these questions in conjunction with their students. A manageable way to tackle this task may be: determine the four questions to be investigated as a class student groups to share their groups’ learning with their class peers students to complete a ‘compare and contrast matrix’ for the four selected issues that addresses the following categories: factors that influence the behaviour involved, individual and community stakeholders involved, effect on individual and group behaviour, possible products and/or solutions. Assessment can include self- and peer-assessment questionnaires and a compare and contrast matrix. In this way the contribution of each student within any group is accounted for. Approximate time frames are proposed for each stage. Science skills: Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task. Preparation: ©VCAA 2015 23 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Students may need assistance in deconstructing the investigation question. Students should be able to develop and administer surveys. This may have previously been covered in class, or teachers may use this problem-based learning activity to develop these skills. Teachers should check survey items to ensure their appropriateness prior to the survey being publicly distributed. Teachers should work with students to: a. identify the style of items in their survey that will allow students to best answer their research question (for example Likert-type scales, dichotomous or ordinal questions) b. develop items to be included in the survey that will allow students to best answer their research question c. develop standardised procedures under which the survey will be administered d. take into account relevant ethical principles including informed consent, voluntary participation, withdrawal rights, confidentiality and debriefing e. determine the number of survey respondents required (for example, five respondents per student). Teachers could also discuss the necessary skills required to work well in a group including perseverance and a positive attitude. Health and safety notes: There are no specific health and safety concerns associated with this activity. Procedure: Stage 1: inquire/discover/research Lesson 1 plus some out-of-class time. Students: Choose an investigation question (IQ) that interests them personally – ideally they make their personal interest in it explicit by recording initial ideas in the logbook. Form teams of three to four people with some interest in the same IQ. The teacher may facilitate this. As a team, brainstorm what they do know and don’t know about the problem/investigation question. What specific questions do they need to investigate further? Each student should keep evidence of the process in their logbooks. Consider how the IQ impacts upon different people and places – research, identify and describe relevant individuals, stakeholders and community groups. What specific questions do they need to investigate further? Students to keep evidence of the process in the logbooks and also keep a record of where they sourced the information in case they need to return to it later. Lesson 2 plus some out-of-class time: Students: Review the selected IQ and reframe/rewrite it if necessary to include specific parameters (such as particular places, stakeholders, countries etc.). Nominate valid sources, such as agencies, organisations or professionals in the field, who might be able to supply information to help them answer the specific questions they identified that require further investigation. Collect as much information as possible on the IQ by dividing up these tasks to individuals within their group. Remember to agree on a timeline for completion. This might include using methods such as: online/library research; surveys; interviews; photo and video documentation; experimental data; and meeting with a variety of experts with different viewpoints. As students research, it is critical they collect sufficient information that allows them to explain arguments for and against different stakeholders’ points of view. Each student should keep and share a careful log of their research – dates, times, sources, observations, summaries etc. Lesson 3. Students: As a group analyse the evidence collated during their field studies and create charts, graphs and other visual representations to understand their findings. Stage 2: create/compose/produce Lesson 4 plus some out-of-class time. Students: Based on their research, ask what specific product/solution they would like to create that addresses the IQ? Their task is to make public a strong, convincing argument to a real/authentic audience. Does the group want to design a website, plan a community event, improve an existing project/program, initiate an actionoriented campaign, make a persuasive presentation to relevant stakeholders? Or something else? ©VCAA 2015 24 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Identify all the steps required to make this stage happen. Make contact with their real/authentic audience and present them a very brief description of the intended product/solution and the rationale/s for the inquiry into the IQ. Students keep evidence of their contact in the logbooks. Lesson 5 plus some out of class time. Students: Create the product/solution and collect evidence of the process. Stage 3: present/share/promote Lesson 6 plus some out of class time. Students: Present the product/solution to class peers for initial review. The randomly selected class peers will complete an assessment questionnaire (based on criteria in a provided assessment rubric). Complete self- and team peer-assessment questionnaires. Deliver the product/solution to the real/authentic audience. Collect evidence of the process. Randomly selected audience members complete assessment questionnaires. Lesson 7 Students complete a written ‘compare and contrast matrix’ for the selected question that addresses the following categories: factors that influence the behaviour involved, individual and community stakeholders involved, effect on individual and group behaviour, possible products and/or solutions. Area of Study 3: Student-directed practical investigation Outcome 3: Examples of learning activities Design and undertake a practical investigation related to external influences on behaviour, and draw conclusions based on evidence from collected data. ©VCAA 2015 How does colour intensity affect the perception of sweetness? How does price affect the perceived pleasantness of food? How does sight affect perception of flavour? How does olfaction affect perception of flavour? Are attitudes towards asylum seekers influenced by age? Is helping behaviour influenced by number of people present? Are exercise preferences influenced by gender? Are food preferences influenced by culture? Are attitudes towards same-sex marriage influenced by age? Are attitudes towards school influenced by culture? 25 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Detailed example HOW DOES SIGHT AFFECT PERCEPTION OF FLAVOUR? The practical investigation builds on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 2 Area of Study 1 and/or Area of Study 2. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account number of students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration: How much input will students have into the selection of the research question? To what extent will all students consider individual research questions, the same investigation question, or complete different parts to the same question so that class data can be pooled? How much input will students have into the selection of the type of investigation undertaken (laboratory work, literature review, observational studies, surveys or different combinations of investigation techniques)? How much input will students have into the design of the investigation? Is class data pooling a possibility? Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases. Students may subsequently adapt the template as a personal work plan in their logbooks. Topic selection phase In this detailed example, the investigation question was generated during a class discussion of the relationship between vision and taste, following a set of investigations undertaken in relation to visual distortions of perception and the location of taste receptors on the tongue. One student commented on a particular type of jelly bean that was yellow in colour but had a blueberry taste. Other students in the class reflected on further examples where the foods they ate had a different taste from what they had expected. A further student comment related to television commercial advertisements promoting a novel food product by showing ‘blindfold’ comparisons of the ‘new’ food versus the ‘old’ food. From this discussion, students developed a number of research hypotheses for investigation. It was determined that each group would test their research hypotheses on children from different year levels at the local primary school. Students selected research hypotheses of interest and worked in groups to perform their selected investigations. Sample hypotheses included: If taste perception is directly associated with visual cues, then the children in a Level 2 class who are given pink-coloured milk are more likely to describe it as being ‘strawberry’ flavoured than the children in a Level 2 class who are given yellow-coloured milk. If taste perception is directly associated with visual cues, then the children in a Level 3 class who are given milk that is flavoured with apple flavouring, with no colour change, are more likely to describe the flavour as ‘plain’ when asked to describe its taste. If taste perception is directly associated with visual cues, then the children in a Level 4 class who have not been blindfolded will be able to identify samples of fruit (apple, pear, orange, mandarin, strawberry and blueberry) more accurately than the children in a Level 4 class who were blindfolded. If sweetness is directly associated with visual cues, then the children in a Level 5 class who are given different samples of milk that vary in colour from cream to white are more likely to describe the creamier coloured milks as ‘sweet’ when compared with the whiter coloured milk samples. Planning phase Students may need guidance in: identifying the independent, dependent and controlled variables in the experiment, and operationalising variables ensuring that resources are available that meet the requirements of the investigation the use of deception in psychological investigations fitting the investigation into the time available, and developing a work plan. Teachers should work with students to: evaluate and refine proposed hypotheses ©VCAA 2015 26 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 develop consent forms for the investigation identify safety aspects of undertaking experiments related to taste, particularly with respect to identification of possible food sensitivities and allergic reactions, and hygienic handling practices of the food being tested determine audience for final report presentation and report format. Investigation phase Prior to students undertaking practical investigations, the teacher must approve student-designed methodologies. A possible general methodology for the experiment is as follows: 1. Contact made with primary school to arrange consent forms to be completed and collected, and confirm times and venues for investigations. 2. Students plan how the experiment will be carried out to ensure that possible confounding variables have been controlled. 3. Students determine materials required, including quantities. 4. Students set up a data-recording sheet. 5. Students perform investigations, record and analyse results and prepare final presentation of report to a selected audience. Reporting phase Students consider the data collected, report on any errors or problems encountered, and use evidence to explain and answer the investigation question. Other avenues for further investigation may be developed following evaluation of their experimental design and feedback from investigation participants. The above phases could be recorded in the student logbook. The report of the investigation can take various forms including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral presentation of the investigation. ©VCAA 2015 27 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Appendix 1: Scientific investigation Hypothesis formulation Once a topic has been identified, students develop a research question for investigation, which may involve formulating a hypothesis. Teachers should guide students so that they do not proceed with a research question or hypothesis that is not testable. Variables The formulation of a hypothesis includes the identification, control and operationalisation of variables. A variable is any quantity or characteristic that can exist in differing amounts or types and can be measured. Values for variables may be categorical or they may be numerical, having a magnitude. Not all variables can be easily measured. Length can be measured easily using, for example, metre rulers. ‘Happiness’ is less easily measured and is more likely to be subjective. It might be measured by, for example, the number of times that someone smiles in an hour. In VCE Psychology, students are required to identify and operationalise independent and dependent variables. Operationalising variables indicates how variables will be specifically defined and measured in a particular study or experiment. Students should also understand the need to control other variables (extraneous variables including confounding variables) that may affect the integrity of the experiment and the interpretation of results. Concepts related to variables that apply to VCE Psychology are specified in Appendix 2. Developing a testable hypothesis A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement that may include a prediction. In some cases, for example in exploratory or qualitative research, a research question may not lend itself to having an accompanying hypothesis; in such cases students should work directly with their research questions. There is no mandated VCE Psychology ‘style’ for writing a hypothesis. Recognition of null and alternate hypotheses, one- and two-tailed hypotheses, and directional and nondirectional hypotheses is not required. The following table provides an example of how a hypothesis may be constructed from a research question using an “If-then-when” construction process: ©VCAA 2015 28 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Step 1: Ask a research question of interest: Does food sweetness depend on temperature? Step 2: Identify and operationalise, as required, the independent variable (IV): temperature Step 3: Identify and operationalise, as required, the dependent variable (DV): perceived sweetness of food Step 4: Construct a hypothesis (a – f below): a b c …then… d trend indicator e …when… f If… relationship phrase (the DV)… (to the IV) (effect on the DV) (action by the IV). …depends on… ...show an increase/ decrease ... …increased/decreased… …be greater than/less than… …greater/less… …results from… …is affected by… …is directly related to… …be larger/smaller… trend indicator …large/small… Hypothesis: If the perceived sweetness of food is directly related to temperature, then ice-cream at a temperature of 15 oC will be perceived by an individual as relatively sweeter than ice-cream at 4 oC. Notes: Different writing styles for hypotheses can be equally valid Some hypotheses may include reference to the specific population involved in the experiment, for example, ‘If the perceived sweetness of food is directly related to temperature, then ice-cream given to Year 12 students at Honeybrook College at a temperature of 15 oC will be perceived by individual students as being sweeter than ice-cream at 4 oC’. More generally, however, the population is described in the introduction of an experimental report. Some hypotheses may include reasons for the inherent prediction.’ Accuracy, precision, reliability and validity Accuracy Experimental accuracy refers to how close the experimental result obtained is to the accepted, or ‘true’, value of the particular quantity subject to measurement. The true value is the value that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly. For example, if an experiment is performed and it is determined that a given substance had a mass of 2.7 g, but the actual or known mass is 9.6 g, then the measurement is not accurate since it is not close to the known value. The difference between a measured value and the true value is known as the ‘measurement error’. While accurate measurements and observations are important in all science experiments, in some cases it may not be possible to determine the accuracy of a measurement since a true value for a particular quantity may be unknown. Often, measurement accuracy is evaluated by making comparisons with accepted values for a physical quantity. ©VCAA 2015 29 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Precision Experimental precision refers to how closely two or more measurements agree with other. Precision is sometimes referred to as ‘repeatability’ or ‘reproducibility’. A set of precise measurements will have very little spread about their mean value. For example, if a given substance was weighed five times, and a mass of 2.7 g was obtained each time, then the experimental data are very precise. Precision is independent of accuracy, so that if the true mass was 9.6 g then these data are very precise but inaccurate. Results can also be accurate but imprecise. For example, if repeated measurements were repeated to determine the mass of a given substance and masses of 9.5 g, 9.7 g and 9.8 g were obtained, then if the true mass was 9.6 g the data would be accurate but not precise since the measurements for the given substance are close to the true value, but the measurements are spread over a range. The reproducibility of an experimental method is dependent on its level of experimental precision. A measurement that is highly reproducible tends to give values that are very close to each other. Experimental precision can be improved by: repeating the experiment multiple times collecting results from other groups to further increase the number of samples practising experimental techniques so that expertise in using equipment is improved. Quantitatively, a measure of precision (or imprecision) is the standard deviation or the magnitude of the error (or uncertainty). The larger the uncertainty, the less assurance there is that any repeated measurements taken will be within a very narrow range of values. For example, a measured mass of 2.7 g ± 0.1 g is less precise than 2.702 g ± 0.001 g. A quantitative treatment of precision is beyond the scope of the VCE Psychology Study Design. Replication of procedures: repeatability and reproducibility Experimental data and results must be more than one-off findings and should be repeatable and reproducible in order to draw reasonable conclusions. Repeatability refers to the closeness of agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on identical test material, under the same conditions (same operator, same apparatus, same laboratory and after short intervals of time). Reproducibility refers to the closeness of agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on identical test material but under different conditions (different operators, different apparatus, different laboratories and/or after different intervals of time). Reproducibility is often used as a test of the reliability of an experiment. ©VCAA 2015 30 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Reliability Experimental reliability refers to the likelihood that another experimenter will perform exactly the same experiment under the same conditions and generate the same results (within a very narrow range of values). Experiments that use human judgment may not always produce reliable results. Validity Experimental validity refers to how well the experimental design matches the requirements of the investigation to produce results that address the stated aim/s. Both internal and external validity should be considered in evaluating experimental results: internal validity dictates how an experimental design is structured and encompasses all of the steps of the scientific research method external validity is the process of examining the results and questioning whether there are any other possible causal relationships. Data are said to be valid if the measurements that have been made are affected by a single independent variable only. They are not valid if the investigation is flawed and control variables have been allowed to change or there is observer bias. Experimental uncertainties and errors It is important not to confuse the terms ‘error’ and ‘uncertainty’, which are not synonyms. Error is the difference between the measured value and the accepted value of what is being measured. Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt associated with the measurement result. It is also important not to confuse ‘error’ with ‘mistake’. Experimental uncertainties are inherent in the measurement process and cannot be eliminated simply by repeating the experiment no matter how carefully it is done. There are two sources of experimental uncertainties: systematic errors and random errors. Experimental uncertainties are distinct from human errors. Human errors Human errors include mistakes or miscalculations such as measuring a height when the depth should have been measured, or misreading the scale on a thermometer, or measuring the voltage across the wrong section of an electric circuit, or forgetting to divide the diameter by 2 before calculating the area of a circle using the formula A = π r 2. Human errors can be eliminated by performing the experiment again correctly the next time, and do not form part of error analysis. Systematic errors Systematic errors are errors that affect the accuracy of a measurement. Systematic errors cause readings to differ from the accepted value by a consistent amount each time a measurement is made, so that all the readings are shifted in one direction from the accepted value. The accuracy of measurements subject to systematic errors cannot be improved by repeating those measurements. ©VCAA 2015 31 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Common sources of systematic errors are faulty calibration of measuring instruments, poorly maintained instruments, or faulty reading of instruments by the user (for example, ‘parallax error’). Random errors Random errors are uncertainties that affect the precision of a measurement and are always present in measurements (except for ‘counting’ measurements). These types of uncertainties are unpredictable variations in the measurement process and result in a spread of readings. Common sources of random errors are variations in estimating a quantity that lies between the graduations (lines) on a measuring instrument, the inability to read an instrument because the reading fluctuates during the measurement and making a quick judgment of a transient event. The effect of random errors can be reduced by making more or repeated measurements and calculating a new mean and/or by refining the measurement method or technique. Outliers Readings that lie a long way from other results are called outliers. Outliers must be further analysed and accounted for, rather than being automatically dismissed. Repeating readings may be useful in further examining an outlier. Statistical analysis of data In VCE Psychology students are expected to calculate mean as a measure of central tendency for a set of data. There is a qualitative understanding that standard deviation is used to summarise the spread of data values around the mean. Students should understand that for a normal distribution, 68% of data values lie within one standard deviation of the mean and 95% of the values lie within two standard deviations of the mean. They should recognise that standard deviation can be useful for comparing the means and the spread between two or more population samples, particularly that: although data sets may have the same mean they may not have the same degree of variation, or spread, in the data a higher standard deviation represents greater variation, or spread, in the data set. Calculations of variance, standard deviation and significance between two sets of data are beyond the scope of the VCE Psychology Study Design. Presenting and analysing data To explain the relationship between two or more variables investigated in an experiment, data should be presented in such a way as to make any patterns and trends more evident. Although tables are an effective means of recording data, they may not be the best way to show trends, patterns or relationships. Graphical representations can be used to more clearly show whether any trends, patterns or relationships exist. The type of graphical representation used by students will depend upon the type of variables investigated: pie graphs and bar charts can be used to display data in which one of the variables is categorical ©VCAA 2015 32 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 line graphs can be used to display data in which both the independent and dependent variables are continuous lines of best fit can be used to illustrate the underlying relationship between variables scattergrams can be used to show an association between two variables sketch graphs (not necessarily on a grid; no plotted points; labelled axes but not necessarily scaled) can be used to show the general shape of the relationship between two variables. When drawing graphs, students should note that: the independent variable is represented on the horizontal axis while the dependent variable is represented on the vertical axis the existence of a correlation does not necessarily establish that there is a causal relationship between two variables not all experiments will show a correlation between variables common types of relationships in psychology include linear, non-linear and cyclic. Students should understand why it is important not to ‘force data through zero’. In drawing conclusions they should examine patterns, trends and relationships between variables with the limitations of the data in mind. Conclusions drawn from data must be limited by, and not go beyond, the data available. ©VCAA 2015 33 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Appendix 2: Defining variables The table identifies types of variables that apply to VCE Psychology. Type of variable Definitions Categorical Categorical variables are qualitative variables that describe a quality or characteristic typically addressing ‘what type?’ or ‘which category?’ They are generally represented by non-numeric values and may be further classified as ordinal or nominal. Ordinal variables can take values that can be logically ordered or ranked, for example, birth order (1st, 2nd 3rd), level of stress (low, medium, high) and attitudes (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree) Nominal variables can take values that cannot be organised in a logical sequence, for example, gender colour, taste (sweet, sour, bitter, salt, savoury) and type of sleep (REM, NREM) Bar charts and pie graphs are used to graph categorical data. Numerical Numerical variables are quantitative variables that describe a measurable quantity as a number, typically addressing ‘how many?’ or ‘how much?’ They are further classified as continuous or discrete. Continuous variables can take any value between a certain set of real numbers, for example distance height (2.85 metres), length of time (12.5 seconds) or temperature (25.4 °C) Discrete variables can take a value based on a count from a set of distinct whole values and cannot take the value of a fraction between one value and the next closest value, for example, number of neurons in a brain or number of facts recalled from a list Scatter plots and line graphs are used to graph numerical data. Independent An independent variable is the variable for which quantities are manipulated (selected or changed) by the experimenter, and assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable. Independent variables are plotted on the vertical axis of graphs. Dependent A dependent variable is the variable the experimenter measures, after selecting the independent variable that is assumed to affect the dependent variable. Dependent variables are plotted on the vertical axis of graphs. Extraneous Any variable that is not intentionally studied in an experiment is an extraneous variable and must be controlled (kept constant), or at least monitored, in order that it does not threaten the internal validity of experimental results by becoming a confounding variable. Confounding Confounding variables are types of extraneous variables that correlate either directly or inversely with both the independent and dependent variables and can interfere with the validity of the experiment by providing alternative explanations for experimental results. Operationalised Operationalised variables are variables that have been defined and explained in terms of how they will be measured in an experiment; for example, if we wanted to investigate the effect of media violence (independent variable) on aggression (dependent variable), the terms ‘media violence’ and ‘aggression’ would need to be defined as they would be investigated in the experiment. ‘Media violence’ could be operationally defined as ‘exposure to a 20-minute YouTube clip showing scenes of physical assault’ while ‘aggression’ could be operationally defined as ‘the number of times a second “participant” is hit with a foam sword’. ©VCAA 2015 34 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Appendix 3: Examples of problem-based learning approaches A problem-based learning environment is conducive to linking scientific concepts to examining science-based issues in society. Scenarios can be developed from actual case studies reported in scientific journals, from local scenarios and issues or from a fictional case study or scenario, as illustrated in the following example. Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: what are you trying to find out? Scenario: Flash forward to a time in the future when you have been employed by an advertising company to come up with a marketing campaign for a new food product. All you are given is the name of the product and some very basic information. It is now your task to research everything about this product, its competitors, and its predecessors and to put together a presentation to give to executives of the company that makes the product. Task: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions/research/experiments, including specific scientific terminology. Step 2: Refine the question/explore possible options (class brainstorming) Step 3: Plan the actual investigation/narrow your choices (class consensus) Step 4: Test ideas and obtain further information (group and/or individual) Notes: problem-based scenarios do not necessarily have a single solution. A problem-based learning approach can also be used to develop specific science skills. The skills should link to relevant psychological content. The following example focuses on the skill of hypothesis formulation. Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: What are you trying to find out? Question: Do older people think differently? Task: This research question is vague and needs refining to narrow its focus in order to develop a testable hypothesis. Step 2: Refine the question/explore possible options (class brainstorming) Possible responses: Question needs to be more specific: Who counts as ‘older’? Both males and females? Think differently from whom? Other people? Themselves at a younger age? Different types of thoughts – logical, creative, imaginative, mathematical, procedural, aspirational, memory How do you know whether thoughts are different? ©VCAA 2015 Step 3 Plan the actual investigation/ narrow your choices (class consensus) Possible responses: Need to identify dependent and independent variables and control other variables. Independent variable (being controlled) relates to ‘age’ and could be: males and/or females aged 65 (or nominated age) and over males and/or females in stratified age groups, e.g. between 60 and 64, 65–69 etc. Dependent variable relates to Step 4: Test ideas and obtain further information (group and/or individual) Possible responses: Need to decide whom the thinking is ‘different from’. Hypothesis example: ‘If age is related to creative thinking, then the drawings of men and women aged 65 years and over will show less imaginative objects in proportion to concrete objects than the drawings of children aged 13 years and under’. 35 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 ‘thinking’ and could be: responding to a ‘how would you…?’ question responding to a ‘what you do differently…?’ question recalling items memorised previously explaining how you could do something completing an unfinished picture. Control of variables is dependent on selected independent and dependent variables. Not all hypotheses are testable and not all variables can be controlled for some experiments. For this problem, students generate possible hypotheses; provide feedback on each other’s hypotheses; modify own hypotheses. Step 5: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions/research/experiments, including discussion of scientific terminology, control of variables and evaluation of experimental methodology. Note: This class problem-based learning approach can be used to generate different questions for students to investigate, particularly for experimental investigations. ©VCAA 2015 36 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Appendix 4: Sample teaching plan Sample Course Outline – VCE Psychology Unit 1: How are behaviour and mental processes shaped? Note: This is a sample guide only and indicates one way to present the content from the Study Design over the weeks in each school term. Teachers are advised to consider their own contexts in developing learning activities: Which local fieldwork sites would support learning in the topic area? Which local issues lend themselves to debate and investigation? Which experiments can students complete within the resource limitations of their learning environments? Week Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ©VCAA 2015 How does the brain function? Topics Learning activities Role of the brain in mental processes and introduction to psychology: design and conduct an investigation to test the capacity of phrenology to behaviour (influence of difference approaches over predict personality; use the findings to discuss how the nature of ‘psychology’ has changed over time to understanding the role of the brain; brain time structure and function of the central and peripheral dissect a sheep’s brain; identify the hindbrain, midbrain and the forebrain (lamb’s brains may be nervous systems; role of the neuron; basic purchased from supermarkets or from a butcher), or conduct a virtual dissection through the Whole structure and function of the hindbrain, midbrain Brain Atlas website and forebrain; role of the cerebral cortex make a ‘brain hat’ using plasticine, papier mache, a hollowed-out half watermelon rind or other suitable modelling materials and label the external features and sections of the brain; work in groups to produce plans for an adaptation of the ‘brain hat’ that shows vertical and horizontal crosssections of the brain Brain plasticity and brain damage (infancy and list the main functions of the spinal cord; investigate how injury or disease involving the spinal cord adolescence as periods of rapid development and affects functionality changes in brain structure and function; impact of demonstrate human brain plasticity using mirror drawing injury to the cerebral cortex; ability of brain to undergo adaptive plasticity; use of animal studies divide class into six groups: each group of students researches the development of myelin, synaptic pruning and frontal lobe development in infancy and adolescence; each group then presents their and neuroimaging techniques to develop examples to the class; other class members use a data sheet to record information and responses understanding of human neurological disorders using photographs from internet, compare the brain structures of other mammals such as a sheep and a mouse to a human brain; discuss how animal models can be used to understand human neurological disorders 37 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 The complexity of psychological development (interactive nature of hereditary and environmental factors on psychological development; role of critical and sensitive periods; importance of attachment on emotional development; development of cognitive abilities; psychosocial development across the lifespan and influence on What influences personality) psychological development? Atypical psychological development (conceptualisation of normality; mental health as a product of internal and external factors; major categories of psychological disorders; ‘two-hit’ hypothesis as an explanation for the development of psychological disorder) analyse twin and adoption studies to examine the influence of environmental factors of development, focusing on the elements involved in the research design of twin and adoption studies visit a zoo to collect qualitative and quantitative data related to animal behaviour and to examine the use of animals in research conduct a class debate about appropriate school starting age using research relating to the emotional, cognitive and psycho-social development of children design and undertake an investigation related to Erikson’s work on personality (for example, ‘Is the degree of reported self-confidence related to hope/loyalty?’) use Piaget’s theory to design, construct, test and report on the developmental appropriateness of a selected toy for a young child use a Socratic seminar (with one central person each representing typical behaviours, atypical behaviours, adaptative behaviours, maladaptive behaviours, mental health and mental disorder to discuss how normality may be conceptualised design a poster describing the facts and misconceptions about mental illness; discuss how ‘facts’ can be distinguished from ‘misconceptions’ Student-directed research investigation (students work independently or in groups to investigate a question related to brain function and/or psychological Student-directed development; outline relevant contemporary research that applies to their investigation; analyse the psychological concepts and scientific evidence that research underpins their response to a question of interest; draw conclusions based on the evidence collected; and communicate the findings of their research investigation investigation in a negotiated format to a selected audience) 18 19 ©VCAA 2015 Unit revision 38 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Sample Course Outline – VCE Psychology Unit 2: How do external factors influence behaviour and mental processes? Note: This is a sample guide only and indicates one way to present the content from the Study Design over the weeks in each school term. Teachers are advised to consider their own contexts in developing learning activities: Which local fieldwork sites would support learning in the topic area? Which local issues lend themselves to debate and investigation? Which experiments can students complete within the resource limitations of their learning environments? Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Area Topics Learning activities Sensation and Perception (sensation and undertake an eye dissection, examining the main structures and components of the eye perception as two complementary but distinct roles; participate in activities that demonstrate inattentional blindness/change blindness taste and vision as two examples of human sensory systems; influences of biological, psychological and ask students to take photographs of symbols they see in their everyday world (for example, at work, on the way home from school, during weekend activities); in groups, ask students to present What influences a social factors on visual perception; influences of the symbols they have found and describe how Gestalt principles are used to create meaningful biological, psychological and social factors on person’s perception of the images perception of the gustatory perception) create an online reflective blog related to a series of practical activities relating to taste (for world? example ‘How does sight affect taste?’) Distortions of perception (fallibility of visual and gustatory systems; distortions of perception of taste investigate the evidence supporting a sixth taste receptor – ‘fat’ compare fMRI images of people with synaesthesia to people without synaesthesia to understand in healthy brains) differences in brain activity of people with synaesthesia Social cognition (role of person perception, analyse an opinion poll published in the media; consider how qualitative and quantitative data has attributions, attitudes and stereotypes; applications been used to support the purpose of the survey and consider the validity of the conclusions drawn and limitations of tri-component model of attitudes; from the data attitudes and stereotypes that may lead to prejudice select a media article that presents a particular viewpoint on a current issue; construct a graphic and discrimination) organiser that identifies possible components that may have contributed to the attitudes evident in the article How are people influenced to have view episodes of ‘Go back to where you came from’ (an SBS television series) and consider the Social influences on behaviour (influence of in particular roles that person perception, attributions, attitudes and stereotypes may play in the development status and power within groups, and obedience and ways? of prejudice and discrimination conformity on individual behaviour; influence on as a class, develop and administer a 20-item survey to measure attitudes on a class-determined helping behaviour; factors that influence bullying; issue; report on the results of the survey, including a summary of how survey items were positive and negative influences of media on developed, selected and edited, and a survey conclusion individual and group behaviour) take a virtual tour of the Stanford Prison Experiment website (www.prisonexp.org); which features an extensive slide show and information about this classic psychology experiment; discuss the ©VCAA 2015 39 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 ethics of the study use a problem-based learning approach to investigate an issue relating to prejudice, discrimination, bullying and negative media influences; students negotiate the production of a media product as an outcome of the investigation consider the influence advertising and marketing has on eating behaviours in young children; choose a position on the issue and write a ‘letter to the editor’ arguing for your chosen position 15 16 17 Student-directed practical investigation (students work independently or in groups to develop a question for investigation; plan a course of action to Student-directed answer the question and submit plans to the teacher for approval; undertake an investigation to collect the appropriate primary qualitative and/or practical quantitative data; organise and interpret the data; reach a conclusion in response to the question; and present findings to a selected audience in a investigation negotiated format) 18 19 ©VCAA 2015 Unit revision 40 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Appendix 5: Employability skills Assessment task Employability skills selected facets Annotations of activities or investigations from a practical logbook Communication (writing to the needs of the audience) Problem solving (testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account) Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions) Comparative analysis Communication (sharing information; persuading effectively; writing to the needs of the audience) Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information) Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and visions; articulating own ideas and visions) Technology (using information technology to organise data) Data analysis Communication (writing to the needs of the audience) Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information) Problem solving (applying a range of strategies) Technology (using information technology to organise data) Evaluation of research Communication (reading independently; writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy) Learning (being open to new ideas and techniques) Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information) Problem solving (testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account) Logbook of practical activities Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy) Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information) Self-management (evaluating and monitoring own performance; articulating own ideas and visions) Media response Communication (listening and understanding; reading independently; writing to the needs of the audience; persuading effectively) Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions) Problem solving involving psychological concepts, skills and/or issues Communication (sharing information; using numeracy; persuading effectively) Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options; initiating innovative solutions) Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and techniques) Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time management; collecting, analysing and organising information) Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing practical solutions; showing independence and initiative in identifying problems and solving them; applying a range of strategies to problem solving; using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account) Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and visions; articulating own ideas and visions) ©VCAA 2015 41 VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020 ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Updated November 2015 Assessment task Employability skills selected facets Report (oral/written/visual/multimodal) Communication (sharing information; speaking clearly and directly; writing to the needs of the audience) Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information) Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new information technology skills) Research investigation involving collection of secondary data Communication (sharing information; speaking clearly and directly; writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading effectively) Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information) Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and visions; articulating own ideas and visions) Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new information technology skills) Scientific modelling Communication (persuading effectively; sharing information) Initiative and enterprise (being creative; initiating innovative solutions) Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and techniques) Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing practical solutions; applying a range of strategies to problem solving) Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time management) Scientific poster Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; persuading effectively; sharing information; using numeracy) Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time management; collecting, analysing and organising information) Problem solving (using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account) Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions) Technology (using information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new information technology skills) Student-designed practical investigation Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options; initiating innovative solutions) Planning and organising (managing time and priorities – setting timelines, coordinating tasks for self and with others; planning the use of resources including time management; collecting, analysing and organising information)) Problem solving (developing practical solutions; showing independence and initiative in identifying problems and solving them) Self-management (evaluating and monitoring own performance; taking responsibility) Teamwork (working as an individual and as a member of a team; knowing how to define a role as part of the team; sharing information) Technology (having the Occupational Health and Safety knowledge to apply technology; using information technology to organise data) Test Problem solving (applying a range of strategies to problem solving) The employability skills are derived from the Employability Skills Framework (Employability Skills for the Future, 2002), developed by the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Business Council of Australia, and published by the (former) Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training. ©VCAA 2015 42