Pre- classical Civilizations
The term civilization normally designates large societies with cities and powerful states.
Although there were many differences between civilizations, they also shared important ESPN characteristics.
• They all produced agricultural surpluses that permitted significant specialization of labor.
Economic exchanges intensified within and between civilizations, as well as with those groups who remained as nomadic herders. [Economic]
• They also featured clearly stratified social hierarchies and organized long-distance trading relationships. [Social/Cultural]
• All civilizations contained cities and generated complex institutions, such as political bureaucracies, armies, and religious hierarchies. [Political]
• All of the major early urbanized civilizations developed in fertile river valleys with some level of protection from outside forces. [eNvironmental]
In contrast to the pre-classical civilizations, early humans were nomadic and developed creative ways of adapting to different geographical settings (savanna to desert to Ice Age tundra). Using a comparative analogy with modern hunter-forager groups, anthropologists and historians infer that these societies were relatively classless. They also infer that these humans developed varied and relatively sophisticated technologies. Archeological evidence indicates that during the
Paleolithic era, hunting-foraging bands of humans gradually migrated from their origin in East
Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas, adapting their technology and cultures to new climate regions in some of the following ways:
• Humans used fire in new ways: to aid hunting and foraging, to protect against predators, and to adapt to cold environments.
• Humans developed a wider range of tools specially adapted to different environments from tropics to tundra.
• Economic structures focused on small kinship/tribal groups of hunting-foraging bands that adapted survive. However, not all groups were totally self-sufficient; they exchanged people, ideas, and goods.
Neolithic Agricultural Revolution/developing urban centers
• This transition occurred gradually between 10,000 B.C. and about 3, 500 B.C. during the
Neolithic era.
• The farming revolution may have begun in the Tigris and Euphrates River Valley and spread to parts of Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Or it may have originated in each area simultaneously based on need and available resources.
• Groups shifted from nomadic hunter/gatherers to less nomadic planters and potters. These planter and potter groups began to cultivate seeds and make pottery in which to store seeds and crops.

• Domestication of animals and larger scale farming allowed people to support larger numbers of people in one area.
• As agriculture grew and there was extra grain and other seed crops, as well as meat from domesticated animals, market centers developed where farmers could sell/trade their excess crops/animals. Over time, these market places became cities.
• As more people concentrated in cities and villages, there was more specialization and division of labor. A basic inequality of gender roles increased with these changes
Early civilizations/early nation-states developed in fertile river valleys:
• Tigris/Euphrates [Mesopotamia] Beginning with the Sumerians circa 5000 BCE
• Nile [Egypt] Beginning with the early Neolithic communities circa 6000 BCE in Upper and
Lower Egypt followed by the dynastic united rule beginning about 3200 BCE
• Indus and Ganges [India] Beginning with the Indus circa 3000 BCE /Ganges circa 1200 BCE
• Huang He and Yangtze [China] Beginning circa 5000 BCE
Physical [geographic] factors that might influence the settlement, development and history of a place are:
• Landforms.
• Climate/weather patterns.
• Wildlife
• Fresh water
• Natural vegetation and resources
• Arable soil
• Natural barriers.
Human factors that might influence major historical development and events might include:
• New systems of political power/rule that often depended on the concept of divine rule, usually with military support
• Creation of written legal codes such as Hammurabi’s Code
• Creation and control of trade routes
• Control of strategic geographic points and critical natural resources [such as iron for the
Hittites]
• Transportation systems and new modes of transportation such as chariots and horses

• Public works, monumental architecture projects and urban planning such as ziggurats, pyramids, water/sewage systems, roads, walled towns, etc.
• Jobs/division of labor; housing; surplus goods/services
• Art, artisanship, and literature such as painting, metalwork, sculpture, weaving, Epic of
Gilgamesh, Book of the Dead, etc.
• Systems of record keeping such as cuneiform, hieroglyphics, alphabets, quipu, etc.
• Diverse religious belief systems
Classical civilizations
The growth of Classical Civilizations - 500 BC/BCE to 600 AD/CE - is defined by advanced civilizations with complex systems of government, education, religion, economics, and art and architecture.
Greeks.
Persia – The Persians set up a strong empire in Mesopotamia [and beyond] rivaling the
China –The Qin and Han Dynasties were strongest during the period from - 500 BC/BCE to 600
AD/CE and other dynasties ruled until the 1900’s AD/CE.
-207 BC/BCE) unified a number of smaller states into an empire;
- 220 AD/CE) extended the empire into central Asia.
India –During this period [500 BC/BCE. to 600 AD/CE] the Mauryan and Gupta dynasties ruled in South Asia
-232 BC/BCE), a Mauryan ruler, spread and strengthened Buddhism. encouraged education, arts, and trade.
By expanding boundaries too far, classical empires in Persia, India, China (Han), created economic, social/cultural, political, and eNvironmental difficulties that they could not manage.
• Economic – These civilizations allowed an elite, privileged class to hold excessive wealth and created a sizable “underclass” without access to economic gain;
• Social/Cultural – These civilizations often enslaved conquered populations without integrating them socially or culturally into the mainstream of society; they had stratified populations of peasants and ruling classes
• Political – These empires developed legal systems and strong military structures, however, as empires expanded it became more and more difficult to maintain rule over far-flung territories;

• eNvironmental – These societies often exploited land to support growing populations and often lost control of frontier areas to invaders.

History of India and South Asia-A Reading
Mohenjo-Daro profits from success in regional and international trade
2300 - 1750 BCE The great city of Mohenjo-Daro, with more than 35,000 inhabitants, becomes one of the wealthiest trading centers in the Indus Valley. The fine cotton, exquisite jewelry and pottery, and distinctive metal goods created by the city's artisans as well as lumber from nearby forests are sought by merchants as far away as Mesopotamia. Blessed by abundant water from the Indus and Hakra rivers, Mohenjo-Daro and the other cities of the Indus Valley civilization also produce a bounty of agricultural products.
The Indus Valley civilization breaks up into smaller cultures
Main changes in the patterns of two mighty rivers play a major role in the collapse of the once highly unified Indus Valley civilization. Severe drops in the water level of the Hakra River leave some farmland dry and barren, while changes in the course of the Indus River cause destructive floods. Facing starvation, many families leave the valley for more fertile lands.
Aryan invaders extend their rule over most of India
1750 – 1000 BCE The Aryan people gain control of all of India except some southern areas. Originally livestock herders from central Asia, these warlike invaders gradually conquer the native Dravidians and settle in villages. The Aryan establish ranks for various castes (social classes determined by birth). The Brahmans, the highest-ranking caste, are known for speaking an elegant form of Sanskrit, the language of the Aryans, and for performing elaborate religious rituals.
A holy man known as Buddha founds a new religion
500s BC/BCE Spiritual leader Siddhartha Gautama, the son of an Aryan prince, attracts a growing number of disciples. His new religion teaches that people can find complete happiness and peace, known as nirvana, by freeing themselves from all desires and worldly things. Known by the title Buddha (Enlightened One), Gautama preaches how he found enlightenment (an understanding of ultimate truth) under a shady bo tree near the village of Gaya.
Chandragupta Maurya expands the Mauryan Empire to its greatest extent yet
324 – 200 BCE Military victories and the wise use of mineral and agricultural resources enable King Chandragupta Maurya to create a mighty empire. The Mauryan Empire includes nearly all of northern India as well as parts of the area north of the Himalaya and in central Asia.
Chandragupta Maurya wins praise from his subjects by improving irrigation canals and roads. He maintains tight control of his empire through spies and informers.
King Ashoka gives up war
274 BCE King Ashoka adopts a life of peace after being stricken with sorrow and regret at the bloodshed caused by his conquest of the nearby kingdom of Kalinga. The war results in the death of 100,000 people and the capture of 150,000. King Ashoka decides to follow the

teachings of Buddha, which stress nonviolence and the importance of duty. Many of Ashoka's subjects follow his example. He believed in the sacred nature of life – including animals – and outlawed animal slaughter. At the same time, the king promotes tolerance of traditional
Hinduism and other beliefs.
King Chandragupta II promotes the arts and sciences
320 – 550 CE/AD The Gupta Empire reaches impressive heights of learning and culture under King Chandragupta II. He promotes art, literature, mathematics, philosophy, and science.
Textile manufacturing and trade, particularly with Southeast Asia and China, provide a solid economic base for the empire. The king remains a devout Hindu. But the extensive libraries and excellent teachers of Buddhist monasteries attract many students.
Muslims invade from Central Asia and rule Northern India
700 – 1858 CE/AD Muslims begin to dominate life and culture in northern India. They establish the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire. They built wonderful palaces and public buildings. They create universities and had influence for centuries. They taught mathematics and developed new technology. Their architecture is known around the world, particularly the Taj
Mahal. The Mughals traded with the entire continent, sailing the Indian Ocean and traveling the silk road with goods.
European traders come to India
1498 - 1600 CE/AD Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French traders and merchants come to the coastal areas of India and establish trade centers. These foreigners work to gain more and more power. The East Indian Trading Company gains strength and exports Indian products to the rest of the world.
British begin to rule India
1800 – 1947 The British take over the government in India and bring India into the
British Empire. They introduce the English language, European culture, government, and technology. They build urban centers and maintain control with a large military. The British weaken the Mughal power and dominate life in India. Trade is the most important link. Cities like Bombay (Mumbai) are filled with British buildings.
India becomes independent and Pakistan is created
1947 – Present: Led by Mohandas Gandhi and others the British finally left India in 1947.
The country of Pakistan was created in the Northern part of India. Today India is the world’s largest English-speaking democracy with almost 1,000,000,000 (billion) people. Pakistan is a largely Muslim nation to the north.