Is Monsanto’s use of Genetic Engineering Compared to Typical Selective
Breeding Justified?
The risks and rewards of genetic engineering, compared to selective breeding, in the world today
sparks many strong opinions, coming from the general public to farmers, and also scientific
researchers. Monsanto, one of the major companies contributing to the oligopoly of the genetically
modified organism (GMO) market, uses modification techniques such as “molecular breeding” and
“seed clipping” to create generations of plants with identical traits (Monsanto n.d.). This can be a
good thing as it may allow for a higher yield and resistance to some specific environmental concerns,
such as temperatures or pests. One problem with having an identical farm full of crops, however, is
susceptibility to significant environmental changes. Having genetic variation can allow for the
survival of some of the crops due to mutations that could induce a resistance to environmental
changes.
Background on Genetic Engineering and Selective Breeding
For many years humans have been selecting the best plant seeds or animals to reproduce, perhaps
due to the animals having more meat or crops having higher yield, in order to maximise production.
This selective breeding has led to the evolution of many organisms to have traits more desirable to
humans, such as meatier cattle, cob-like corn and other food producing organisms (UGA 2013). Since
selective breeding makes use of sexual reproduction there is still genetic variance in the offspring of
selectively bred organisms (Crierie & Greig 2010), which can have both positive and negative impacts
on farming.
Genetic engineering is a form
of genetic modification that
actively accesses and changes
the genes of organisms in
order for them to display
certain traits. Plant genes can
be modified in many ways,
most of which copy, replicate
then insert genes from other
organisms into the existing
genotype. The method of
insertion can use a variety of
different vectors, such as
gene guns, Agrobacterium
and a few others (ASU 2015).
The gene gun method works
by attaching the gene of
interest to an inert metal
particle – usually gold or
tungsten – then firing that
particle into the plant cells
(Hudswell 2011). The cells
Figure 1 This image shows the process of gene transferral using a gene gun
(http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_qW2UQv_mP5A/TG1GztwiCyI/AAAAAAAAAEg/2jsFVSg-QP4/s1600/transferringagene.jpg)
that receive the genes are typically callus cells. Callus cells are used because they grow rapidly and
can replicate many transgenic cells. These callus cells can be cultured to produce a full transgenic
plant.
Agrobacteria use plasmids as a method of gene transfer. Plasmids are short sequences of circular
DNA that are typically found in bacteria, and can sometimes merge into the chromosomes of plants
(ASU 2015). Agrobacteria infect the plant cells and release the specifically modified plasmids, called
Ti plasmids. The cells that incorporate this additional DNA begin to develop callus cells, from which
new plants can be cultured (ASU 2015). This process is pictured below in Figure 2.
Figure 2 This diagram shows the process of gene transfer using Agrobacterium as a vector.
(http://2010.igem.org/wiki/images/d/d0/Agro_theory.png)
Advantages of Genetic Engineering and Disadvantages of Selective Breeding
There are many positives of using Genetic Engineering as a tool for product development. Unlike
with selective breeding it is possible to obtain biological traits that would be otherwise unobtainable
or would take tremendous amounts of time. This also includes the ability to make the organism
resistant to specific diseases or pests, or to make them produce certain chemicals (Buiatti et al
2013). Examples of these include Bt Cotton and Golden Rice. Bt Cotton was modified in order to
produce a chemical that is toxic to certain species of insect, thus reducing the need for pesticides
(Stewart 2007). This cotton is widely used in India as it allows for higher yield and is less affected by
pests, increasing the potential income of the farmers. Golden rice has been modified to produce
beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. This rice could be used to save many lives; in that it can
reduce the number of cases of people with vitamin A deficiency in less economically developed
countries (Buiatti et al 2013).
Another advantage of genetic engineering over selective breeding is that there is significantly less
genetic variance; however this can be a double edged sword. The lack of genetic variance, due to
asexual reproduction, increases likelihood that the entire crop will show the desired traits, unlike
with selective breeding where this isn’t a guarantee, due to the genetic variance from sexual
reproduction (Crierie & Greig 2010). Also, Monsanto uses a process called “seed clipping” in which a
small amount of each seed is shaved off and the DNA examined for quality control (Monsanto n.d.).
Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering and Advantages of Selective Breeding
In the US GMOs have a relatively poor reputation among the general public, with around half of the
population saying they wouldn’t knowingly eat GM foods (LLC 2014). To go along with this public
stigma there are also some scientific and social ethicality concerns with genetic engineering for
agriculture and the companies responsible i.e. Monsanto. From a scientific standpoint, there are a
few potential health and environmental issues with using genetically engineered crops. One such
issue is that the genetically engineered organisms may be toxic or allergenic due to the transgenes
themselves, or other chemical changes that may be result in hazardous compounds (Bernstein
2008).
Another major concern with genetically engineered crops is their hybridisation with non-GM crops.
This can occur with the cross pollination of the GM crop with the non-GM crop, resulting in a
possible introgression of genes (Buiatti et al 2013). Other effects of this may include introgression of
disease or antibiotic resistance from the genetically engineered crops to weed crops, which would
make superweeds with higher environmental fitness (Buiatti 2013). Another specific issue with crops
genetically engineered to produce chemicals hazardous to insects, such as Bt cotton, is that they
could cause a hole in ecosystems, thus promoting growth of other species. In china there have been
reports of increased populations of the mirid bug, another pest, caused by reduced bollworm
numbers (Qiu 2010).
Finally, the way in which Monsanto deals with the distribution of seeds has caused a significant
uproar, such they do not allow for the storage and reuse of seeds for consecutive farming seasons
(Monsanto n.d.). This and the use of “seed chipping” to analyse the DNA of every individual seed
leads to a very expensive product, which reduces the availability of plants that could otherwise save
or improve many lives – such as Golden Rice or disease resistant crops. One other shortcoming of
genetically engineered crops compared to selectively bred ones is again their lack of genetic
diversity. Selectively bred plants have a larger variance in genetics due to meiotic reproduction
(Crierie & Greig 2010) thus there is a chance that they may randomly develop a resistance to disease
or other environmental changes.
Conclusion
In summary the genetic engineering of crops has many rewards, but not without risk. Such GM crops
as Golden Rice and bt cotton show that there is a good potential in furthering the innovation and use
of genetic engineering for the future. However the current potential risks of this process can have
negative impacts on human health and the environment, through introgression. There is also the
economic aspect, in particular the ways in which Monsanto deals with genetic engineering and use
of their products. Overall it can be seen that Monsanto’s use of genetic engineering, from a
biological view is justified in its future potential, however from a socioeconomic view it is not.
My point of view on this is that Monsanto provides good products, however their methods of
providing and analysing them are not optimal for distribution due to pricing and ban on reuse.
References
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production for a better nutrition: two different scientific points of view’, Genes and Nutrition, vol. 8,
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