Lecture 7 Outline
The Great Unwashed: The Immigrant Experience and Xenophobia in the Melting Pot
Discussion topics from last week’s readings:
o
Borders and bridges: A history of U.S.-Latin American relations, “The Monroe Doctrine, Manifest
Destiny and the Mexican War”
American Immigration – U.S. a unique example of extreme longevity of immigration, extreme diversity of
groups. The result is a unique definition of the word “nation”, a nation of citizens, not natives. Mass
immigration an early phenomenon, by 1770 over ½ million Europeans in English colonies. However, with
regional differences: transportation of black African slaves changes nature, culture of Southern colonies. In
New World, novel group formations and new identity dynamics (British Colonial, Indian, Black but also
Pennsylvania Dutch, mestizo, mulatto, etc.) set foundation for a society not firmly founded on ethnicity or
religious affiliations – a more malleable sense of identity. American Revolution (1776–1783) underscores
importance of citizenship and “native experiences”; uniquely, the U.S. becomes from its onset a “voluntary
association of citizens”, with however boundaries (white/alien/Protestant).
After Revolution, low immigration levels and skepticism of newcomers and war migrants/British. Notably,
100,000 colonists leave for Canada or other British colonies during Revolutionary era. Full citizenship becomes
exclusive, something particularly “American” – aliens can be naturalized, but only after a sufficient period of
acculturation, “earned citizenship”, others are considered wholly unsuitable to citizenship (blacks/Indians).
However, this exclusion (civic-religious in tone), comes with pronounced South/North differences, particularly
as abolitionists in North see slavery as a betrayal of American civic religious ideals.
The end of the Napoleonic Wars and peace in Europe after 1820 sees extraordinarily high levels of immigration
worldwide – in the 19th century 150 million people emigrate; 55 million emigrated from Europe, mostly to the
Americas. From 1820 to 1860, some 2 million Germans and 1 million Irish come to U.S. Largest effects seen in
urban settings, but affects rural life as well. European immigration effects a “whitening of society” and a new
ethnic aspect to identity formation in country. Religious complexion too changes with influx of (more) Catholic
immigrants. Era sees rise of anti-immigrant (no longer “aliens”) sentiment and nativism, Know-Nothings e.g.
However, no blanket anti-immigrant sentiment, as some groups openly welcomed (white Protestants).
Religious and cultural differences commingle with political differences, resulting in unique power relations and
coalitions: civic issues tend to unite groups. Importantly, many developments were regional, local and
unprecedented (German unity, abolitionism, prohibition, suffrage).
The Civil War (1861–1865) and post-bellum era brings about political/legal end to some aspects of
exclusiveness of citizenship (emancipation of slaves), but does not address racism or prejudice as such. Postbellum America sees new waves of immigration, ~300,000–1,000,000 annually, as well as beginning of S–N
migration (i.e. freedmen out of South) – also prominent: parallel narrowing of definition of white and
increasing importance of “white” as a legal concept (cf. quadroon/octoroon). The era also sees scientific racism
and social Darwinism gain wide acceptance throughout country. Ideas are co-opted to discriminate against
less-desired immigrants (Asians, Jews, dark-skinned Europeans) as well as to politically weaken ethnic groups
already in country (Mexicans, Indians, Asians). Fear of being “over-run by mongrels” wide-spread and widely
accepted in era. As new immigrant groups arrive, identity formation and power relations change and,
interestingly, recent immigrants often strongly attracted to anti-immigration political beliefs. Amongst rural
dwellers and conservatives the notion of “old stock Americans” gains credence. In face of prejudices, different
ethnic groups react differently (coalition-making often trumps more traditional preferences such as religion,
color, ethnicity, etc.) However, nativism and scientific racism eventually triumph and by 1920s immigration
strictly curbed. The classic era of immigration comes to an end.
The push to stop the flow of immigrants was the result of many factors: WWI, fear of communism/anarchists,
racism, miscegenation, nativism etc. But underlying factor was that immigration is almost always a threat to
established power relations. A never-ending cycle of conflict and reformation of groups and power a constant
in American history; as the country attempted to consolidate and unify in the early 20th century, anti-immigrant
policies were seen as key. Paradoxically, although the color line persists, by the 1940s diversity widely accepted
by most Americans. Legal restrictions remain however. By 1960 only 5% of Americans are foreign-born (1900
20%, 2000 10%), lowest percentage since 1820—the baby boomer generation grows up in a relatively
culturally/ethnically homogeneous America.
Racism and the Permeable Color Line in America – As a social and cultural construct: the belief that physical
differences actually mean something, and that they are immutable. Racism often the result of a need to justify
a dominant power relation, to protect it from threats. In modern U.S. race is a color word, but this was so not
in past. Some immigrants, such as Italians, were legally “white on arrival” but socially not: Dark skin was a social
marker as were other physical traits. Manipulation and prejudice took various forms, e.g. real estate covenants,
preferences for “Christian” workers, education quotas. However, some groups had the “ethnic option” to
become white, whereas others did not. Immigrant groups like Italians and Jews became “white” in the mid-20th
century, whereas groups like West Indian blacks or sub-Saharan Africans were classed “black” by default and
remained so. The color line is interesting in that it can change drastically: in modern America, Asian immigrants
tend to be viewed as socially/culturally/legally white – This is stark contrast to early 20th century situation
(Asian immigrant quotas, citizenship barrier, WWII executive order 9066).
The Hispanic Variation – Hispanics historically viewed as tainted with dark skin/blood. Modern prejudices about
Hispanics have roots in to deep-seated views about African-Americans. Hispanics, like blacks, find themselves
forced into a hierarchy of color, forced to conform to a racial construction which is fairly alien to them.
“Hispanic” is a racialization of many ethnic groups (of many colors), the Spanish language being the only thing
they (mostly) have in common. While politically expedient, it is culturally (and sometimes ethnically)
undesirable to many Hispanic immigrants. Often in demanding equality, peoples of color have unknowingly
unleashed forces of racialization and stereotyping. Latino, Chicano and Hispanic identities are double-edged
swords: they can mean everything, anything and nothing. In face of racial boundaries, many Hispanics choose/
or are forced into novel group identities: West Indians of Asian descent can choose to identify as “Asians”,
whereas Hispanics (Puerto Rico/ Costa Rica) who self-identify as “white” in their home countries often find
themselves classed as minorities in America. Ethnic identity and self-identification are rarely as clear-cut as
classifications imply—at the same time, they play important roles in the identities of peoples whose skin color
excludes them from the “ethnic option”, that is, the possibility of fully joining the dominant culture.
Selected Reading:
“Racial and Ethnic Identity in the United States, 1837–1877”, in Race and Ethnicity in America: A Concise History
by Ronald Bayor
OR “Race, Nation, and Citizenship in Late Nineteenth-Century America, 1878–1900”
OR “The Critical Period: Ethnic Emergence and Reaction, 1901–1929” in the same work
Suggested Musical Interlude:
Goin’ out West by Tom Waits
Andrew Pattison
Oulu University
AvP13
Focus Areas in North American History 682373AAndrew Pattison