Very Tentative Notes on
Grammar, Linguistics and
Translation
for the Domung [dev] language
spoken in Madang Province
Written by Phil King with Simon Kwasɨk, Nosingke
Gaup and Noel Diru
June 2015
Table of contents
Table of contents .................................................................................................................................... 1
License..................................................................................................................................................... 3
Copyright ................................................................................................................................................. 3
ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 4
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 4
2 WRITING SYSTEM AND SOUNDS .......................................................................................................... 5
3 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES .............................................................................................................. 6
3.1 Pronouns ....................................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.1 Translation Issues for Pronouns ............................................................................................. 7
3.2 Nouns ............................................................................................................................................ 7
3.2.1 Singular and Plural Nouns ...................................................................................................... 7
3.2.2 Translation Issues for Singular and Plural Nouns ................................................................... 8
3.3 Adjectives ...................................................................................................................................... 8
3.3.1 Normal Adjectives .................................................................................................................. 8
Size .................................................................................................................................................. 8
Colour .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Other attributes .............................................................................................................................. 9
3.3.3 Translation Issues for Adjectives............................................................................................ 9
3.4 Demonstratives and Articles ......................................................................................................... 9
3.4.1 Articles ................................................................................................................................... 9
3.4.2 Demonstratives ...................................................................................................................... 9
3.5 Basic Noun Phrase Structure....................................................................................................... 10
3.5.2 Translation Issues for Noun Phrases .................................................................................... 10
3.6 Possession ................................................................................................................................... 10
3.6.1 Translation Issues for Possession ......................................................................................... 12
4 PREPOSITIONS / POSTPOSITIONS ...................................................................................................... 12
5 VERBS ................................................................................................................................................. 12
5.1 Person and Number Marking ...................................................................................................... 12
5.1.1 Subject Marking ................................................................................................................... 12
5.1.2 Object Marking..................................................................................................................... 13
5.1.2.1 Verbs with no object marking ........................................................................................... 14
5.1.2.2 Verbs which mark whether the object is singular or plural .............................................. 14
Page 1
5.1.2.3 Verbs which mark whether the object is singular or plural, and first, second or third
person ........................................................................................................................................... 16
5.2 Tense ........................................................................................................................................... 17
5.2.1 Present tense ....................................................................................................................... 17
5.2.2 Recent past tense................................................................................................................. 17
5.2.3 (Distant) past tense .............................................................................................................. 19
5.2.4 Future tense / irrealis........................................................................................................... 20
5.2.5 Translation Issues Related to Tense..................................................................................... 20
5.3 Aspect.......................................................................................................................................... 20
5.4 Medial Verbs ............................................................................................................................... 21
5.6.2 Translation Issues for Medial Verbs ..................................................................................... 23
6 CLAUSES ............................................................................................................................................. 23
6.1 Transitive clauses ........................................................................................................................ 23
6.1.1 Examples .............................................................................................................................. 24
6.1.2 Translation Issues for Transitive Clauses ............................................................................. 24
6.2 Intransitive clauses...................................................................................................................... 24
6.2.1 Example ................................................................................................................................ 24
6.4 Semantic roles ............................................................................................................................. 24
6.4.5 Location ................................................................................................................................ 24
6.4.6 Source / destination ............................................................................................................. 25
6.4.7 Instrument ........................................................................................................................... 26
6.4.8 Accompaniment ................................................................................................................... 26
7 SENTENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 26
7.1 Conjunctions ............................................................................................................................... 26
7.1.1 Examples .............................................................................................................................. 26
APPENDIX A: Verb tables ...................................................................................................................... 28
APPENDIX B: Text used for analysis ...................................................................................................... 32
Page 2
License
(the permissions we give to everyone, in simple English):
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Copyright
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Description
Contribution
Signatures
Linguistic and translation
notes
Author
Phil King
Text collection - written
Authors
Simon Kwasɨk, Noingke Gaup
Date
Page 3
ABBREVIATIONS
1
2
3
DS
DU
IRR
LOC
OBJ
PL
POSS
PRES
PST
REC
SBJ
SG
SSQ
SS
First person
Second person
Third person
Different subject marker
Dual
Irrealis
Location
Object
Plural
Possessive
Present
(Distant) past (more than one day ago)
Recent past (yesterday or today)
Subject
Singular
Same subject marker, sequential (‘and then’)
Same subject marker
1 INTRODUCTION
Language name: Domung [dev]
Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Finisterre-Huon, Finisterre, Yupna
Location of Language Group: Finisterre mountains, Madang province close to the border with
Morobe province
Name(s) of contributor(s): Simon Kwasɨk, Nosingke Gaup
Period during which this information was collected: May 2015
Location where most data has been collected: Ukarumpa
Text used to help produce this description: See Appendix B
Page 4
These notes are very tentative, and have been written by Phil King during the five-week long
Translators’ Training Course at Ukarumpa, at which the two Domung speakers, Simon Kwasɨk and
Nosingke Gaup, were participants. The course itself focused on other assignments, so the data for
this grammar was just collected and written up in a very few spare moments between other
sessions. The analysis is based on one natural text written by Nosingke Gaup and a selection of
elicited sentences. However, it is hoped that this will be a useful starting point for anyone working
on translation in the language, or offering consultant help. Wes Reed’s Yopno Grammar Essential,
Craig and Pat Spaulding’s Phonology and Grammar of Nankina, and James Slotta’s handout on
Coding the nonspatial setting in Yopno (Nian/Nokopo Dialect): Finite verb morphology and nonfinite
verb constructions were all incredibly helpful in providing grammatical background for the languages
in this area, although I did not have time to study them in detail. I expect this document to contain
many errors and inconsistencies, and it has not been checked by a linguistic consultant, yet I hope it
is helpful for others to build upon in the future.
2 WRITING SYSTEM AND SOUNDS
The two non-English letters that are used in the writing system are:
<ɨ>
a close central vowel, a bit like the vowel sound in English ‘the’ but with your mouth closer
together.
<ŋ>
a voiced velar nasal, the sound at the end of the English word ‘sing’.
An alphabet development worksheet and spelling guide were written in [xxx], but there are still
some difficulties in spelling. Here are a few of them:
Page 5
a) Whether or not to use an ɨ after another vowel and before some consonants. For example,
the words pek / peɨk ‘carried’, peŋ / peɨŋ ‘scraped’, it / iɨt / yiyɨt ‘made’ have been written
with or without the ɨ in different places.
b) Whether a <k> or a <g> should be used in certain circumstances, such as between two
vowels. For example, the word for ‘garden’ has been written as wago / wako /wakgo in
different places.
c) Whether to use of the letter <y> to separate vowels or not. For example, it is a challenge to
know whether to write yiyɨk, iyɨk or iɨk for ‘he made’.
Choosing where to make a break between words is also difficult. This is particularly true for the
following cases:
a) Little bits that come after words (suffixes or clitics) and have a grammatical meaning, such as
da ‘SOURCE’, nɨ ‘3SG.POSSESSIVE’, on ‘LOCATION’. Sometimes these are written as part of
the previous word, and sometimes they are written as a separate word.
b) Parts that come before words (prefixes), particularly ɨŋ ‘SINGULAR OBJECT’ and pɨŋ ‘PLURAL
OBJECT’. Sometimes these are written as part of the following word, and sometimes they
are written as a separate word.
3 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES
3.1 Pronouns
Domung pronouns are shown in the chart below.
Pronouns are words like ‘I’, ‘you’ and ‘they’, which stand in place of other noun phrases. These are
some words that are useful for talking about pronouns and other aspects of Domung grammar.
1st person (1) = the speaker. English ‘I, we’
2nd person (2) = the listener. English ‘you’
3rd person (3) = neither the speaker nor the listener. English ‘he/she/it/they’
Singular (SG) = just one person/thing. English ‘I/he/she/it’
Dual (DU) = two people/things. English ‘we two, you two, they two’
Plural (PL) = more than two. English ‘we/they’
In Domung, there are separate pronouns for talking about one person (me or you) doing something
(singular); two people (we-two or you-two) doing something (this is called ‘dual’); and three or more
people (we or you) doing something (this is called ‘plural’).
However, there are no normal pronouns for the third person. That is, there is no natural equivalent
to the English words ‘he/she/it’ (singular), ‘they two’ (dual) or ‘they’ (plural). Instead, words like no
mɨn ‘that person’ or ‘those people’ are used in some situations.1
1
When the subject is marked on the verb, there is also no difference between the 2 nd person dual and third
person dual forms, nor between 2nd person plural and 3rd person plural. See further discussion in Section 5.
Page 6
TABLE 1: Pronouns
Normal
pronoun
English equivalent
singular 1st person
nak
‘I’
2nd person
gak
‘you’
3rd person
_
‘he, she ,it’
1st person
nit
‘we two’
2nd person
din
‘you two’
3rd person
_
‘they two’
1st person
nin
‘we’
2nd person
dɨ
‘you’ (yupela in Tok
Pisin)
3rd person
_
‘they’
dual
plural
These pronouns can be used for the subjects of a sentence (usually the person who is doing the
action), as in example (1).
(1) nak baŋɨ
-no
kat Ukarumpa o
-gɨmat
1SG elder.brother 1SG.POSS with Ukarumpa
come.up 2/3DU.PST
́I came to Ukarumpa with my elder brother (before yesterday)’
They are also used for the object of a sentence, showing who an action happened to, as in example
(3).
(2) nak
n1SG
1SG.OBJ
́he hit me’
ɨ
-yak
hit 3SG [need to check the verb root here – what is really left?]
3.1.1 Translation Issues for Pronouns
Domung has different pronouns for two people (dual) compared to three or more people (plural)
doing something. English does not have this difference. This means translators always need to think
when translating words like ‘we’, ‘you’ and ‘they’ in English whether the context says this is two
people or more than two people, and then use the correct words in Domung.
3.2 Nouns
3.2.1 Singular and Plural Nouns
In English, plural nouns are often shown by the suffix ‘-s’ at the end of the word. We have not found
any examples of Domung nouns that change for singular, dual or plural.
Page 7
For example, yagwan tam ‘tanget leaf’ is the same in example (3), where it refers to one leaf and in
example (4), where it refers to two leaves.
(3) yagwan tam
rukruk kwa
yagwan tam
rukruk kwa
tanget
leaf
red
one
’A red tanget leaf is on the bilum’
(4) yagwan tam bɨroŋɨ
yɨk
bin
yagwan tam bɨroŋɨ yɨk
bin
tanget
leaf two
bilum
in
'Two tanget leaves are in the bilum’
yɨk
pen
yɨk
pen
bilum on
temɨrak
t
-e
stay PRES
tek
t
stay
-e
PRES
-k
3SG
-mɨrak
2/3DU
However, suffixes at the end of the verb clarify whether a subject noun is singular, dual or plural. In
example (3), the –k suffix clarifies that the subject is third person singular (one leaf), and in example
(4), the mɨrak suffix clarifies that the subject is dual (two leaves).
3.2.2 Translation Issues for Singular and Plural Nouns
Since English does make a difference between singular and plural nouns, but Domung does not,
translators may need to make sure that the translation communicates in some other way whether a
noun is singular or plural if it is important in the source text, such as by using a number with the
noun.
3.3 Adjectives
3.3.1 Normal Adjectives
Adjectives are words which describe a noun. Adjectives might describe the size, shape and colour of
something, the age or feelings of a person, or the appearance of a place.
Some English Adjectives are: ‘big, small, round, square, triangular, red, blue, green, tall, short, young,
old, happy, sad, stressed, relaxed, rocky, wet, dry, hot’ and ‘cold’. There are many more!
Examples (5) – (7) show some adjectives in Domung.
Size
(5) yɨrɨ
tam
moyi kɨtaŋ
yɨrɨ
tam
moyi kɨtaŋ
thing leaf
small bit
‘A fairly small leaf of something’
(6) buwat matep sɨnɨ
kwa
buwat matep sɨnɨ
kwa
eel
big
very
one
‘a very big eel’
Page 8
Colour
(7) yagwan tam
rukruk
yagwan tam
rukruk
tanget
leaf
red
’A red tanget leaf’
kwa
kwa
one
Other attributes
(1) yagwan tam
sakɨrikɨ kwa
yagwan tam
sakɨrikɨ kwa
tanget
leaf
smooth one
’A smooth tanget leaf’
In all of these examples the adjective comes after the noun it describes, which is the opposite order
to English.
In English, words like ‘very’ and ‘a bit’ can be used to describe the strength of an adjective. For
example a book may be ‘very interesting’ or a child may be ‘a bit small’.
In Domung, the word sɨnɨ ‘very’ can be used after an adjective to make it stronger, as in example (6).
The word kɨtaŋ ‘bit’ can be used after an adjective to make it less strong, as in example (5).
3.3.3 Translation Issues for Adjectives
In English adjectives come before the noun they are describing, whereas in Domung they come after
the noun they are describing. Translators need to remember to use the natural Domung order for
adjectives.
3.4 Demonstratives and Articles
In English, an indefinite article tells us that an item is one of a set of things (for example, a car). A
definite article tells us that we are supposed to know which member of the set it is (the car) or that
it is the only one of its kind (the sun). Many PNG languages do not have articles, but some do. A
demonstrative (often called a “pointing” word) points you towards the place where the people or
things are. They might be near the person speaking (for example this dog), or somewhere away from
the person who is speaking (for example that man), or in some other direction or place.
3.4.1 Articles
We have not found a clear example of an article in Domung.
3.4.2 Demonstratives
The Domung demonstrative no ‘that / those’ refers to things at some distance from the speaker in
space or time. Some examples are given in (8) – (9).
(8)
no
pup
that
chicken
‘that chicken’
(9)
no
mɨn
sɨrɨpto
kanaŋ ɨnɨŋ
those
people
group.to like
said
‘those people used to be called like this…’
ɨnɨŋ iyɨt
said stayed
Page 9
By contrast, the demonstrative kan ‘this / here’ are used for things that are closer to the speaker, as
in examples (10) – (11).
(10)
kan
yagwan
this
tanget
‘This big tanget leaf’
tam
leaf
matep
big
kwa
one
(11)
Naŋ
ɨnɨŋ ɨŋ
ɨnomɨrak
din
kan yomen korɨp
sɨnɨ
like this said and they (2) said you(two) this area quiet
very
‘They said this, and they (2) said, “You (2) stay very quietly in this area”’.
yakɨndi
stay
Whereas no and kan come before a noun they are linked to, katon comes after the noun.
3.5 Basic Noun Phrase Structure
A noun phrase is a group of words that together describe a particular object, such as ‘those two big
noisy dogs’ in English. Usually there is a common order for the different parts of speech in a noun
phrase. In English, the order is: DEMONSTRATIVE NUMERAL ADJECTIVE NOUN.
By contrast, in Domung, the usual order is:
DEMONSTRATIVE NOUN ADJECTIVE NUMERAL
This order is shown in example (12):
(12)
DEMONSTRATIVE NOUN
no
yagwan tam
that
tanget
leaf
‘those two big red tanget leaves’
ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE NUMERAL
matep
rukruk
bɨroŋɨ
big
red
two
In examples with more than one adjective, different orders for the adjectives are possible. Thus, in
example (12) the order of adjectives can be changed to rukruk matep ‘red big’.
3.5.2 Translation Issues for Noun Phrases
The adjectives and numerals come before the noun in English, but after the noun in Domung. This
means that translators need to make sure to change the order of the noun phrase into a natural
order for Domung when they are translating.
3.6 Possession
Often people talk about something that belongs to someone else. In linguistics, the word
‘possession’ is used to talk about these kinds of examples.
Some things are very closely related to the person who owns them, such as parts of the body or
family relations (these are called inalienable nouns). In Domung, a possessive suffix is added to
these nouns to show who they belong to, as shown in Table 2. Notice that the word wago ‘work /
garden’ must mean ‘work’ when it takes a possessive suffix (as in wagono ‘my work’), and in order to
say ‘my garden’ the phrase nagasin wago is used, as described below the table.
Page 10
It is significant that the possessive suffix for the 3rd person is the same, -nɨ, whether the object
belongs to one, two, or many people.
TABLE 2: Possessive Suffixes
Person
Example
Gloss
Example
Gloss
1SG
Possessive
Suffix
--no
baŋɨno
wagono
‘my work’
2SG
-go
baŋɨgo
wagogo
‘your (sg) work’
3SG/DU/PL
-nɨ
baŋɨnɨ
wagonɨ
‘his / her /
their work’
1DUAL
-nit
baŋɨnit
wagonit
‘our (2) work’
2DUAL
-din
baŋɨdin
wagodin
‘your (2) work’
1PL
-nin
baŋɨnin
wagonin
‘our garden’
2PL
-dɨ
baŋɨdɨ
‘my elder
brother’
‘your elder
brother’
‘his / her /
their elder
brother’
‘our (2) elder
brother’
‘your (2) elder
brother’
‘our elder
brother’
‘your (plural)
elder brother’
wagodin
‘your (pl)
garden’
Other objects (such as house, chickens and gardens) are not so closely related to the person who
owns them, and these are said to be alienable nouns: they can be separated from the person who
owns them.
In Domung, this sort of possession uses a pronoun followed by the possessive word dasin before the
possessed noun, as in example (13).
(13)
nin dasin
yut
nin dasin
yut
1PL POSS
house
‘in our village’
dairon
dair
-on
clan.group LOC
Table 3 shows a more complete list for the example of wago, which has to mean ‘garden’ in this kind
of phrase. In each case the normal pronoun combines with the word dasin to create a possessive
form.
Page 11
TABLE 3: Indirect possession for alienable nouns
Person
1SG
2SG
3SG/DU/PL
Normal
pronoun
nak
gak
-
1DUAL
2DUAL
1PL
2PL
nit
din
nin
dɨ
Example
Gloss
nagasin wago
dagasin wago
nondasin wago /
wagonɨ
nit dasin wago
din dasin wago
nin dasin wago
dɨasin wago
‘my garden’
‘your (sg) garden’
‘that one’s / those ones’
garden’
‘our (2) garden’
‘your (2) garden’
‘our garden’
‘your (pl) garden’
3.6.1 Translation Issues for Possession
Since Domung does not make a difference between possession for something belonging to ‘him /
her’ or ‘them’, but English does, translators may sometimes need to find other ways to make it clear
whether something belongs to one person or many people.
4 PREPOSITIONS / POSTPOSITIONS
In English, words like ‘in’, ‘on’, and ‘under’ come before the noun they are related to, so they are
called prepositions. In Domung, words like this come after the noun to which they are related, so
they are called postpositions.
These are a very few examples of postpositions in Domung: pen ‘on’, bakɨrok ‘under’, bin ‘in’, as
shown in examples (14) – (16).
(14)
(15)
(16)
yagwan tam
rukruk kwa
yɨk
pen
yagwan tam
rukruk kwa
yɨk
pen
tanget leaf
red
one
bilum on
‘A red tanget leaf is on the bilum’
tek
t
stay
yɨrɨ
tam moyi kɨtaŋ kwa yɨk
bakɨrok
yɨrɨ
tam moyi kɨtaŋ kwa yɨk
bakɨrok
thing
leaf small bit
one bilum under
‘a small leaf is under the bilum’
yagwan tam
yagwan tam
tanget leaf
bɨroŋɨ yɨk
bin
bɨroŋɨ yɨk
bin
two
bilum in
temɨrak
t
-e
stay
PRES
-e
PRES
-k
3SG
tek
t
stay
-e
PRES
-k
3SG
-mɨrak
2/3DU
5 VERBS
5.1 Person and Number Marking
5.1.1 Subject Marking
Many languages have markers on the verb to show who or what the subject is. The subject is usually
the person doing the action of the verb.
Page 12
In Domung, there are suffixes on the verb which give information both about the subject and the
tense or aspect of the action (see sections 5.2 and 5.3). These suffixes are given in more detail under
the sections about tense and aspect. Here, there are just some examples of verbs in the present
tense (something that is happening now), showing the suffixes that are used. More complete verb
tables are given in Appendix A. In Domung, there are many changes to the subject endings based on
the particular verb, and these need to be documented more carefully.
It is important to note that in Domung the same markers are used for ‘you-two’ and ‘they-two’ doing
something (second and third person dual), and for ‘you (plural)’ and ‘they’ doing something (second
and third person plural). Because of this, only one row is given for second and third person dual, and
for second and third person plural.
TABLE 4: Subject suffixes for the present tense
Subject marker
(in the present
tense)
singular 1st person
-et
2nd person
-en
3rd person
-ek
1st person
-emat
dual
plural
2nd / 3rd person
-emɨrak
1st person
inclusive
2nd/3rd person
-eman
-eŋ
Example
kwet
‘I am going’
kwen
‘you are going’
kwek
‘he is going’
kwemat
‘we (2) are going’
kwemɨrak
‘you/they (2) are going’
kweman
‘we are going’
kweŋ
‘you/they are going’
5.1.2 Object Marking
Many languages also have markers on the verb to show who or what the object is.
Domung has at least three types of verbs.
i.
ii.
iii.
Verbs that do not tell you anything about the object
Verbs with a prefix that tells you whether the object is singular or plural
Verbs with a prefix that tells you whether the object is singular or plural, and whether it is
first, second or third person
The following sections show examples of the object marking for these three types of verbs in
Domung.
Page 13
5.1.2.1 Verbs with no object marking
Table 5 shows the pattern for the verb wase ‘touch’ which does not mark the object at all, and is
typical for other verbs which do not mark the object.
TABLE 5: Type 1 verbs, with no object marking
Example of verb with no object marking
singular 1st person
2nd person
3rd person
dual
1st person
2nd person
3rd person
plural
1st person
2nd person
3rd person
nak wase -yak
1SG touch 3SG.REC
‘he touched me’
gak wase -yak
2SG touch 3SG.REC
‘he touched you’
no
wase -yak
DEM touch 3SG.REC
‘he touched him’
nit
wase -yak
1DU touch 3SG.REC
‘he touched us two’
din wase -yak
2DU touch 3SG.REC
‘he touched you two’
_
nin wase -yak
1PL touch 3SG.REC
‘he touched us’
dɨ
wase -yak
2PL touch 3SG.REC
‘he touched you (plural)’
noma wase -yak
DEM touch 3SG.REC
‘he touched them’
5.1.2.2 Verbs which mark whether the object is singular or plural
Table 6 shows the pattern for verbs which just mark whether the object is singular or plural, using
the example of apt ‘hold’.
Page 14
TABLE 6: Type 2 verbs, object prefixes only show whether the object is singular or plural
Type 2: Object prefix only
shows singular or plural object
singular 1st person
2nd person
3rd person
dual
1st person
2nd person
nak apt
-ak
1SG held
3SG.REC
‘he held me’
gak apt
-ak
1SG held
3SG.REC
‘he held you’
no
apt
-ak
DEM held
3SG.REC
‘he held him’
nit
papt -ak
1DU PL.OBJ held 3SG.REC
‘he held us two’
din papt -ak
2DU PL.OBJ held 3SG.REC
‘he held you two’
3rd person
1st person
nin papt -ak
1PL PL.OBJ held 3SG.REC
‘he held us’
nd
papt -ak
2 person dɨ
2PL PL.OBJ held 3SG.REC
‘he held you (plural)’
rd
apt -ak
3 person noma pDEM PL.OBJ held 3SG.REC
‘he held them’
In this example, the singular object is marked by having no prefix on the verb, and the plural object
with the prefix p- ‘PLURAL OBJECT’. However, in natural texts, the object marking is more typically
with the prefixes ɨŋ for ‘SINGULAR OBJECT’ and pɨŋ for ‘PLURAL OBJECT’, as in the following
examples. In (17), the pɨŋ refers to the galip nuts (kɨŋaye) which are the plural object of the verb
yɨpgiyit ‘they put’. We are still unsure whether this should be written as part of the same word as
the verb (as in Nankina) or as a separate word. In example (18), the subject is a married couple and
their children who have just dug up a big eel. The eel is referred to by the prefix ɨŋ when it is the
singular object of the verb sɨŋ ‘cook’, and again by the prefix ɨŋ when it is the object of the verb pɨtak
‘go up’.
plural
(17) Kɨŋaye pɨŋ
yɨpgiyit
tɨtaŋ
yɨwata…
kɨŋaye pɨŋ
yɨpgiyit
tɨta -ŋ
yɨwa
-ta
galip nut PL.OBJ they put crack SS
left them SSQ
‘They (would) put galip nuts and crack them and leave them and then…’
Page 15
(18) Kɨsɨŋ iyɨt
kɨtat nayeŋ ɨŋ
sɨŋ sakɨrɨk ɨŋ pɨtak
patot pen…
kɨsɨŋ iyɨt
kɨtat nayeŋ ɨŋ
sɨŋ sakɨrɨk ɨŋ pɨtak patot pen
happy stayed rested relaxed OBJ cook heated OBJ got up ledge on
‘They were happy and stayed and relaxed and cooked it and heated and lifted it onto the
ledge above the fireplace’
In example (18), the two uses of ɨŋ are slightly different. In the first one, it marks the straightforward
object of the transitive verb sɨŋ ‘cook’. However, in the second example, ɨŋpɨtak ‘they lifted it’, the ɨŋ
prefix both marks the eel as the singular object of the verb, and changes the verb from the
intransitive meaning ‘got up’ to the causative meaning ‘made it get up’, or more simply ‘lifted it’.
The prefixes ɨŋ and pɨŋ can have this function with other verbs too, as shown in Table 7.
TABLE 7: The causative function of ɨŋ and pɨŋ
Intransitive verb
ko
English gloss
‘go’
Causative verb
pɨŋgo
wapdo
‘will come’
pɨŋgwapdo
English gloss
‘caused them to go /
took them
‘will cause them to
come / bring them’
5.1.2.3 Verbs which mark whether the object is singular or plural, and first, second or
third person
Finally, there are some verbs which take a prefix that tells us whether the object is singular or plural,
and also whether it is first, second, or third person. Some examples are given in Table 8. It is not
clear exactly where the object marker ends in each word, because it changes depending on the verb
that follows it. More research is needed to investigate this, but two examples are given here, both
using the recent past tense.
TABLE 8: Type 3 verbs, marking object as singular or plural and first, second or third person.
Beginning of
object marker
Example 1
Example 2
singular 1st person
n-
nanɨk
‘he said to me’
nɨyak
‘he hit me’
2nd person
g-
ganɨk
‘he said to you’
gɨyak
‘he hit you’
3rd person
y-
ɨnɨk
‘he said to him’
yɨyak
‘he hit him’
1st person
n-
nɨnɨk
‘he said to us’
nawak
‘he hit us’
2nd / 3rd
person
d-
danɨk
‘he said to you / them’
dawak
‘he hit you / them ’
dual /
plural
Page 16
5.2 Tense
Domung has at least three tenses, a present tense, a recent past tense used for events that
happened today or yesterday, and a (distant) past tense, used for events that happened the day
before yesterday and earlier. There is also a verb form that is used for events either in the future or
that have not happened yet.
5.2.1 Present tense
The present tense is used for events that are happening now. Table 9 shows the paradigm for one
verb in the present tense, although it is slightly different for other verbs (see Appendix A).
TABLE 9: Present tense forms
Person
1SG (‘I’)
2SG (‘you’)
3SG (‘he/she’)
1DU (‘we two’)
2/3DU (‘you two’
/ ‘they two’)
1PL (‘we’)
2/3PL (‘you all /
they’)
Present tense
net
n
-e
eat
PRES
nen
n
-e
eat
PRES
nek
n
-e
eat
PRES
nemat
n
-e
eat
PRES
nemɨrak
n
-e
eat
PRES
neman
n
-e
eat
PRES
neŋ
n
-e
eat
PRES
Gloss
‘I am eating’
-t
1SG
‘you are eating’
-n
2SG
‘he/she is eating’
-k
3SG
-mat
1DU
-mɨrak
2/3DU
‘we (2) are
eating’
‘you / they (2)
are eating’
‘we are eating’
-man
1PL
-ŋ
2/3PL
‘you / they are
eating’
In this example, the suffix –e is a clear marker of the present tense, and comes before the marker
which tells who the subject is.
5.2.2 Recent past tense
The recent past tense is used or events that happened earlier today or yesterday. Table 10 shows
the forms that are used for the recent past for the same verb, na ‘eat’.
Page 17
TABLE 10: Recent past tense forms
Person
1SG (‘I’)
2SG (‘you’)
3SG (‘he/she’)
1DU (‘we two’)
2/3DU (‘you two’
/ ‘they two’)
1PL (‘we’)
2/3PL (‘you all /
they’)
Recent past tense
nat
n
-a
-t
eat
REC
1SG
nan
n
-a
-n
eat
REC
2SG
nak
n
-a
-k
eat
REC
3SG
namat
n
-a
-mat
eat
REC
1DU
namɨrak
n
-a
-mɨrak
eat
REC
2/3DU
naman
n
-a
-man
eat
REC
1PL
naŋ
n
-a
-ŋ
eat
REC
2/3PL
Gloss
‘I ate (recently)’
‘you ate
(recently)’
‘he/she ate
(recently)’
‘we (2) ate
(recently)’
‘you / they (2)
ate (recently)’
‘we ate
(recently)’
‘you / they ate
(recently)’
In this example, the suffix –a is a clear marker for the recent past tense, before the subject suffix.
However, in other verbs the pattern is not so straightforward, because of the way the suffix attaches
to the root of the verb. For example, the pattern for verb ko ‘go’ is shown in Table 11.
TABLE 11: Recent past paradigm for ko
Person
1SG (‘I’)
Recent past tense
kɨt
2SG (‘you’)
kɨn
3SG (‘he/she’)
kɨk
1DU (‘we two’)
kɨmat
2/3DU (‘you two’
/ ‘they two’)
1PL (‘we’)
kɨmɨrak
2/3PL (‘you all /
they’)
kɨyɨŋ
kɨman
Gloss
‘I went
(recently)’
‘you went
(recently)’
‘he/she went
(recently)’
‘we (2) went
(recently)’
‘you / they (2)
went (recently)’
‘we went
(recently)’
‘you / they went
(recently)’
Page 18
5.2.3 (Distant) past tense
Another past tense is used for events that happened the day before yesterday or longer ago.
Sometimes this may be called a far past tense or distant past tense, but since these events may have
happened quite recently, we have called it the (distant) past tense. Table 12 shows the forms that
are used for the (distant) past for the same verb, na ‘eat’. In this tense it is harder to see any part of
the verb that corresponds just to the (distant) past. Instead, the suffixes show both the tense and
the person who is the subject. However, many of the suffixes do contain the letter <o>.
TABLE 12: (Distant) past tense forms
Person
1SG (‘I’)
2SG (‘you’)
3SG (‘he/she’)
1DU (‘we two’)
2/3DU (‘you two’
/ ‘they two’)
1PL (‘we’)
2/3PL (‘you all /
they’)
(Distant) past tense
naom
n
-aom
eat
PST.1SG
naon
n
-aon
eat
PST.2SG
naot
n
-aot
eat
PST.3SG
naomat
n
-aomat
eat
PST.1DU
naomɨrak
n
-aomɨrak
eat
PST.2/3DU
naoman
n
-aoman
eat
PST.1PL
nayit
n
-ayit
eat
PST.2/3PL
Gloss
‘I ate’
‘you ate’
‘he/she ate’
‘we (2) ate’
‘you / they (2)
ate’
‘we ate’
‘you / they ate’
The suffixes are mostly somewhat similar for other verbs (see Appendix A), although some verbs
have a <g> appearing in the 3rd person forms, as in the examples in Table 14. We have not had time
to study this enough to explain the forms.
TABLE 13: Some unusual forms for the (distant) past
Recent past
iyak
iyaŋ
wawak
wawaŋ
puwak
puwaŋ
Gloss
‘he sat (recently)’
‘they sat (recently)’
‘he came (recently)’
‘they came (recently)’
‘he slept (recently)’
‘they slept (recently)’
(Distant) past
igɨt
igɨt
wabgɨt
wabgit
pagɨt
pagit
Meaning
‘he sat’
‘they sat’
‘he came’
‘they came’
‘he slept’
‘they slept’
Page 19
5.2.4 Future tense / irrealis
There are another set of verb forms in Domung that are used for events happening in the future. BY
comparison with Yopno and Nankina, it is probably best to describe these as irrealis rather than
future. That is they are used for things that have not happened yet, and may or may not happen in
the future. The verb forms here are even more variable than in the other tenses, so examples are
just given for the verb na ‘eat’, in Table 14.
TABLE 14: Irrealis forms
Person
1SG (‘I’)
2SG (‘you’)
3SG (‘he/she’)
1DU (‘we two’)
2/3DU (‘you two’
/ ‘they two’)
1PL (‘we’)
2/3PL (‘you all /
they’)
Irrealis
ninyat
n
-inyat
eat
IRR.1SG
ninyan
n
-inyan
eat
IRR.2SG
ninyak
n
-inyak
eat
IRR.3SG
nondinyamat
n
-ondinyamat
eat
IRR.1DU
nondiyamɨrak
n
-ondiyamɨrak
eat
IRR.2/3DU
noninyaman
n
-oninyaman
eat
IRR.1PL
noniyaŋ
n
-oniyaŋ
eat
IRR.2/3PL
Gloss
‘I may eat’
‘you may eat’
‘he/she may eat’
‘we (2) may eat’
‘you / they (2)
may eat’
‘we may eat’
‘you / they may
eat’
5.2.5 Translation Issues Related to Tense
Domung has two different past tenses, whereas English only has one. This means that translators
will need to decide carefully which tense to use in every context, based on whether the event
happened the previous day or longer ago. Sometimes it will be very difficult to make this decision for
biblical texts where it is not explicit how long ago something happened.
5.3 Aspect
Aspect has to do with the timing of an action or event itself, for example if it is continuing,
completed, repeated, and so on. We have not had much time to investigate aspect in Domung, but
we have observed a way to describe habitual actions in the past, by repeating a verb.
Some examples are given in (19) and (20). In long sentences with many different verbs in them, the
verb is just repeated in the final verb but can give habitual aspect to the whole sentence. In (19) the
Page 20
repetition of the verb ko ‘go’ means that the whole sentence is talking about something that used to
happen habitually in the distant past.
(19) no
mɨn
sɨrɨpto
kanaŋ ɨnɨŋ ɨnɨŋ iyɨt
no
mɨn
sɨrɨpto
kanaŋ ɨnɨŋ ɨnɨŋ iyɨt
those people group.to like
said said stayed.PST.3PL
‘Those people used to be called like this…’
(20) Ɨŋ
ɨŋ
and
yamak mɨn
yamak mɨn
banana also
yɨrɨ
yɨrɨ
thing
gɨyan kwim kwimɨ dɨ
iyɨk
gɨyan kwim kwimɨ dɨ
iyɨ
-k
bunch different.kind.its hang SS
uwi
a
gɨroŋ gɨroŋ yaŋ
ko
ko
iyɨt
uwi
a
gɨroŋ gɨroŋ yaŋ
ko
ko
iyɨ
-t
trunk became? bent
like.that go
go
hang 2/3PL.PST
‘The bananas also used to hang in a different way, the bunch used to hang and make the
trunk bend like that’
5.4 Medial Verbs
Many PNG languages with Actor, Patient, Verb (APV) (also known as subject, object, verb (SOV))
word order have two kinds of verbs. Final verbs almost always come at the end of a sentence and
have their own set of markers for person, tense etc. Medial verbs are used earlier in the sentence
and have their own markers that do not come on the final verbs. In this section we will discuss
medial verbs.
Medial verbs are very common in the Domung test that was the main basis for these grammar
notes. We did not have time to study these medial verbs in detail, but we have noticed that often
they are short verbs and end in <ŋ> or <k> (or have no suffix at all) to show that the next verb has
the same subject (SS). Sometimes the medial verb ends in –ta, which we think means that the next
verb has the same subject but happens a little later. Example (21) shows a long sentence with each
medial verb highlighted in bold. Notice again (as in example (20)) that the repetition of naŋ ‘eat’ at
the end of the whole sentence means that all the actions described are habitual actions in the past.
(21) Kɨre yamak bamɨnɨ ɨŋgwɨra
kɨre yamak bamɨnɨ ɨŋgwɨra
OK banana ready
it became
kɨŋaye
tɨtaŋ
kɨŋaye
tɨta
-ŋ
galip nut cracked SS
yɨwata
yɨwa
them left
no
yɨrɨ
no
yɨrɨ
those thing
naŋgin,
naŋgin
same
-ta
SSQ
ko wagen
yamak pɨŋ
yɨk
pɨŋ
mandok pɨŋ
go yɨwata
ko wag
-en yamak pɨŋ
yɨk
pɨŋ
mandok pɨŋ
go yɨwa
-ta
go garden LOC banana PL.OBJ put in bilum PL.OBJ carried PL.OBJ go left them SSQ
kayep pɨŋ
tuwaŋ
peɨk pɨŋ
yusɨŋ sa daŋ
ɨwɨrak ɨŋgwɨra
kayep pɨŋ
tuwa -ŋ peɨk pɨŋ
yusɨ -ŋ sa da
-ŋ ɨwɨrak ɨŋgwɨra
firewood PL.OBJ cut
SS carried PL.OBJ built SS lit flamed SS embers it became
,
Page 21
yamak sɨŋ
yamak sɨ
banana cook
-ŋ
SS
nongat
kɨŋaye
nongat
kɨŋaye
with.that galip nut
gɨwɨk
gɨwɨ
-k
peel
SS
kat
kat
with
waruŋ
waru -ŋ
pound SS
ɨŋ
ɨŋ
and
naŋ
naŋ
eat
naŋ
naŋ
eat
iyɨt
iyɨt
stayed
‘OK, when the banana was ready they did the same thing, they used to crack galip nuts and
leave them and go to the garden and put bananas in a bilum and carry them (in a bilum) and
bring them and leave them, and then they got and cut and tied firewood and carried it and
built a fire and set fire to it and it lit and became hot embers and they cooked the bananas
and peeled them, pounded them with the galip nuts and would eat them’
In Yopno there are other markers which are used to show that the subject of the next verb is
different from the subject of the current verb, so we expect that Domung would have similar
markers. However, we did not have enough time to explore this fully. However, the sentence given
in (22) does have a change of subject half way through, so it is possible that the –an (or –ran) suffix
is a ‘different subject’ marker, showing that the subject of the verb panyiran ‘chase them’ is 3rd
person singular (the father) and that the next verb has a different subject, the children. This helps
the hearer understand that the first three verbs, ɨnɨŋ ‘spoke’, dawaŋ ‘hit’ and panyiran ‘chased
them’ all have the father as subject, whereas the last two verbs, parak ‘went out’ and komɨrak
‘went’ have the two children as subject, even though neither the father nor the children are
mentioned in this sentence.
SUBJECT:
FATHER FATHER
FATHER
CHILDREN
CHILDREN
(22) Yaŋ
ɨnɨŋ
dawaŋ
panyiran
paraŋ
komɨrak
yaŋ
ɨnɨ -ŋ dawa -ŋ panyi
-ran
para -ŋ k
-omɨrak
like.that say SS hit SS PL.OBJ chase DS.3SG go out SS go 2/3DU.PST
‘(He) said like that and hit and chased them, and (they both) went outside and went’
The suffix –kwɨran also looks like it may be a ‘different subject’ marker, when the current subject is
3rd person dual, as in example (23).
(23) Kokwɨran
yumnɨ
kareŋ buwat katon ɨŋ paraŋ
yɨnɨŋ
kwɨran,
ko -kwɨran yumnɨ
kare -ŋ buwat katon ɨŋ para -ŋ yɨnɨ
-ŋ kwɨran
go DS.2/3DU he left them see SS eel
this
OBJ go out SS cut up SS and.DS
matnɨ
a yɨrɨ saweyan
bɨtɨpon
somɨrak
mat -nɨ
a yɨrɨ sawey -an
bɨtɨp
-on
s
-omɨrak
wife 3.POSS ? food peel DS.3SG clay pot LOC
cook 2/3DU.PST
‘(They (2)) went and (different subject) he ignored them and got the eel out and cut it up and
(different subject) his wife peeled food and (different subject) they (2) cooked (it) in a clay pot’
The full paradigm for the ‘different subject’ markers that look like this is given in Table 15. The
different subject marker shows who is the subject of the current verb, and that the next verb will
have a different subject.
Page 22
TABLE 15: Medial verb ‘different subject’ suffixes
Person
1SG
Different subject marker
-kwɨro
2SG
-kwɨre
3SG
-kwɨran
1DU
-kɨndo
2/3DU
-kwɨran
1PL
-kɨno
2/3PL
-kwɨra
Example
kokwɨro
naot
ko -kwɨro n -aot
go 1SG.DS eat 3SG.PST
‘I went and he ate’
kokwɨre
naot
ko -kwɨre n -aot
go 2SG.DS eat 3SG.PST
‘You went and he ate’
kokwɨran
naot
ko -kwɨran n -aot
go 3SG.DS eat 3SG.PST
‘He went and he (someone else) ate’
kokɨndo
naot
ko -kɨndo n -aot
go 1DU.DS eat 3SG.PST
‘We (2) went and he ate’
kokwɨran
naot
ko -kwɨran n -aot
go 2/3DU.DS eat 3SG.PST
‘You / they (2) went and he ate’
kokɨno
naot
ko -kɨno
n -aot
go 1PL.DS eat 3SG.PST
‘We went and he ate’
kokwɨra
naot
ko -kwɨra n -aot
go 3PL.DS eat 3SG.PST
‘They went and he ate’
I suspect from looking at the text that there are also other ‘different subject’ markers without kwɨ in
them, but I have not had time to study them any further.
5.6.2 Translation Issues for Medial Verbs
Natural Domung text use lots of medial verbs one after the other to tell a story. They use ‘same
subject’ or ‘different subject’ markers on the verbs to tell who is doing the action, rather than using
pronouns or names of the actors. In English, stories tend to have much shorter sentences with fewer
verbs in them and use a lot of pronouns or names to say who is doing the action. Translators need to
be careful to use the normal Domung style not just translating word for word from English. This
might mean reading a whole paragraph in English to get the meaning, and then seeing how to say it
all naturally in Domung using the appropriate medial and final verbs.
6 CLAUSES
6.1 Transitive clauses
Transitive clauses include a subject, a verb and an object.
Page 23
6.1.1 Examples
The usual word order for a transitive clause in Domung is (S)(O)V. That is, the verb is always after the
subject and the object if they are mentioned, and often at the end of the sentence. If there is an
object it occurs before the verb. Often the subject is not mentioned because it is clear from the verb
itself, but if the subject is mentioned, it comes before the object.
Example (23) shows a sentence with all three elements: subject; object; and verb.
SUBJECT
OBJECT
VERB
(23) Nak
yamak gau
yonda yɨnɨt
nak
yamak gau
yonda yɨn
I
banana knife with cut up
‘I cut up the banana with a knife’
-ɨt
1SG.REC
6.1.2 Translation Issues for Transitive Clauses
Since Domung has the verb at the end of the sentence whereas English has the verb in the middle of
the sentence, it is important for translators to remember to put the verb at the end of the sentence
when translating. Also, English almost always uses a noun or pronoun for the subject of a sentence,
whereas Domung does not usually need to say who the subject is. So, if English words are translated
literally word-for-word into Domung, it will be unnatural with too many pronouns and nouns for the
subject of sentences. Translators need to read and listen to what they have translated to make sure
it sounds like natural Domung.
6.2 Intransitive clauses
Intransitive clauses contain a verb that usually cannot take an object. For example, he walked, he
laughed, he jumped in English.
6.2.1 Example
In intransitive clauses, the subject is not usually mentioned, but if it is mentioned it comes before
the verb.
Here is an example of an intransitive clause:
SUBJECT
(24) nak
nak
I
VERB
Madang
Madang
Madang
kida
kida
from
Ukarumpa
Ukarumpa
Ukarumpa
ogɨm
o
come
-gɨm
1SG.PST
6.4 Semantic roles
The following sections show some ways that Domung expresses certain semantic roles for nouns or
noun phrases in a sentence.
6.4.5 Location
A location is where an action or event takes place. E.g. ‘Eli slept in his bed’, ‘She found the coin
under the table’
Locations in Domung are often marked with the suffix –on, as in examples (25) – (26)
Page 24
(25)
nin dasin
yut
nin dasin
yut
1PL POSS
house
‘in our village’
dairon
dair
-on
clan.group LOC
(26) …matnɨ
a yɨrɨ
saweyan
bɨtɨpon
somɨrak
mat
-nɨ
a yɨrɨ
sawey -an
bɨtɨp
-on s
-omɨrak
wife 3.POSS ? food peel DS.3SG clay pot LOC cook 2/3DU.PST
‘…his wife peeled food and they (2) cooked it in a clay pot’
Sometimes this suffix looks like –en instead, as in (27).
(27) …ko wagen
mup piyɨt
pɨrɨk
pɨŋgo
yɨwata…
ko
wag
-en mup piyɨt
pɨrɨ
-k pɨŋgo yɨwa
-ta
go
garden LOC taro
planted pull up SS PL.OBJ go left them SSQ
‘(they would) go to the garden and pull up the taro they had planted and bring it and leave it
and…’
6.4.6 Source / destination
A source is where something moves from, a destination is where something moves to. E.g.
‘Abraham travelled from Ur (source) to Haran (destination)’
In Domung, sources can be marked by the postposition kida ‘from’ as in (28).
(28) nak Madang kida Ukarumpa ogɨm
nak Madang kida
Ukarumpa o
-gɨm
I
Madang from Ukarumpa come 1SG.PST
‘I came from Madan to Ukarumpa (more than two days ago)’
Elsewhere the postposition gitda was used, as in (29).
(29) …Ɨŋkwɨran
nunɨ
pinɨ
yɨrɨ waken
gɨtda
ɨŋ -kwɨran nunɨ
pinɨ
yɨrɨ wak
-en gɨtda
and DS.2/3DU mother.3POSS father.3POSS thing garden LOC from
wa
wa
come
yɨk kukaŋ
yɨwaŋ
iyɨkwɨran…
yɨk kuka
-ŋ
yɨwa
-ŋ
iyɨ
-kwɨran
bilum remove SS
left them SS
stay DS.2/3DU
‘…and (different subject) their mother and their father came from the garden and (same
subject) removed their bilum and left them and stayed, and (different subject)…’
Sometimes just the word da ‘SOURCE’ is used after the locative suffix –on, to show that something is
coming from a location, as in (30).
(30) No sɨp
pɨsɨk onda
bɨt kaman
ɨroko
no
sɨp
pɨsɨk -on da
bɨt kaman
ɨroko
that stone
hole LOC SOURCE pig appeared came.out
‘Pigs used to keep coming out of that stone hole’
ɨroko
eyit
ɨroko
eyit
came.out made.3PL
Page 25
Destinations do not appear to have any special marking, as in (31).
(31) nak Madang kida Ukarumpa ut
nak Madang kida Ukarumpa ut
I
Madang from Ukarumpa came.1SG.REC
‘I came (to) Ukarumpa from Madang (yesterday or today)’
6.4.7 Instrument
An instrument is used by someone to make something happen. E.g. ‘Jael killed Sisera with a tent
peg’ ‘Saul attacked David with a spear’
One way to show an instrument in Domung is to use the postposition yonda, something like ‘with’,
as in (32).
(32) Nak
yamak gau
yonda yɨnɨt
nak
yamak gau
yonda yɨn
I
banana knife with cut up
‘I cut up the banana with a knife’
-ɨt
1SG.REC
6.4.8 Accompaniment
An accompaniment is someone who does something with someone else. E.g. ‘Moses went to
Pharaoh with his brother’
In Domung, this is shown with the word kat ‘with’, as in (33).
(33) Nak baŋɨno
kat
Ukarumpa
nak baŋɨ
-no
kat
Ukarumpa
I
elder.brother 1SG.POSS with
Ukarumpa
‘I came to Ukarumpa with my older brother’
ogɨmat
ogɨmat
came.up.2DU.PST
7 SENTENCES
7.1 Conjunctions
7.1.1 Examples
Table 16 lists some of the examples of conjunctions that we have found.
TABLE 16: Conjunctions
Conjunction
ne
ɨŋ
kat
to
Gloss
‘but’
‘and’
‘and / with’
‘to’
kɨra
‘OK…’
More information
Joins nouns together
Introduces a reason for
something
Something like ‘this happened,
and then…’
Page 26
Page 27
APPENDIX A: Verb tables
Verb: speak
Person
Present tense
yet
Recent past
tense
yat
(Distant) past
tense
yaom
1SG (‘I’)
2SG (‘you’)
yen
yan
yaon
3SG (‘he/she’)
yek
yak
yawut
1DU (‘we two’)
yemat
yamat
yaomat
2/3DU (‘you
two’ / ‘they
two’)
1PL (‘we’)
yemɨrak
yamɨrak
yaomɨrak
yeman
yaman
yaoman
2/3PL (‘you all /
they’)
yeŋ
yaŋ
yayit
Future / Irrealis
NOT
RESEARCHED
NOT
RESEARCHED
NOT
RESEARCHED
NOT
RESEARCHED
NOT
RESEARCHED
NOT
RESEARCHED
NOT
RESEARCHED
Page 28
Imperative
yaŋ
yorak
yot
Verb: stay
Person
Present tense
yakwet
Recent past
tense
yakɨt
(Distant) past
tense
yakom
1SG (‘I’)
2SG (‘you’)
yakwen
yakɨn
yakon
3SG (‘he/she’)
yakwek
yakɨk
yakot
1DU (‘we two’)
yakwemat
yakɨmat
yakomat
2/3DU (‘you
two’ / ‘they
two’)
1PL (‘we’)
yakwemɨrak
yakɨmɨrak
yakomɨrak
yakweman
yakɨman
yakoman
2/3PL (‘you all /
they’)
yakweŋ
yakɨyiŋ
yakɨyit
Future / Irrealis
NOT
RESEARCHED
NOT
RESEARCHED
NOT
RESEARCHED
NOT
RESEARCHED
NOT
RESEARCHED
NOT
RESEARCHED
NOT
RESEARCHED
Page 29
Imperative
yiyɨk
yakɨn
yakɨt
Verb: go
Person
Present tense
(Distant) past
tense
kom
Future / Irrealis
kwet
Recent past
tense
kɨt
1SG (‘I’)
2SG (‘you’)
kwen
kɨn
kon
kwinyan
3SG (‘he/she’)
kwek
kɨk
kot
kwinyak
1DU (‘we two’)
kwemat
kɨmat
komat
kɨndinyamat
kɨndo
2/3DU (‘you
two’ / ‘they
two’)
1PL (‘we’)
kwemɨrak
kɨmɨrak
komɨrak
kɨndiyamɨrak
kɨrak
kweman
kɨman
koman
kɨndinyaman
2/3PL (‘you all /
they’)
kweŋ
kɨyɨŋ
kɨyɨt
kɨniyaŋ
Page 30
Imperative
kwinyat
ko
kɨt
Verb: eat
Person
Present tense
(Distant) past
tense
naom
Future / Irrealis
net
Recent past
tense
nat
1SG (‘I’)
2SG (‘you’)
nen
nan
naon
ninyan
3SG (‘he/she’)
nek
nak
naot
ninyak
1DU (‘we two’)
nemat
namat
naomat
nondinyamat
2/3DU (‘you
two’ / ‘they
two’)
1PL (‘we’)
nemɨrak
namɨrak
naomɨrak
nondiyamɨrak
neman
naman
naoman
noninyaman
2/3PL (‘you all /
they’)
neŋ
naŋ
nayit
noniyaŋ
Imperative
ninyat
Page 31
naŋ
norak
not
APPENDIX B: Text used for analysis
(Due to time limitations this text is only partially analysed into separate morphemes, and many
glosses are tentative or inaccurate)
(2) wako asɨn mekanɨ
story about making a garden
1.1 Sunamɨ
sɨnɨ mɨn
sɨrɨwɨ kwa yakiyɨt
, no
mɨn
sɨrɨpto
sunamɨ
sɨnɨ mɨn
sɨrɨwɨ kwa yakiyɨt
no
mɨn
sɨrɨpto
In.the.past very men/people group one they were
kanaŋ ɨnɨŋ ɨnɨŋ iyɨt
that/those men/people group.to
.
kanaŋ ɨnɨŋ ɨnɨŋ iyɨt
like
said said stayed
In the distant past, there was one group of people, and those people were called like this
1.2 Morɨtma
yaŋ
ɨnɨŋ
yaŋ
ɨnɨ
morɨt
ma
hot.place
people like.that say
-ŋ
kwɨra
yakiyɨt
kwɨra
yakiyɨt
.
2/3PL (like that?) they were
Hot place people, they called them like that
1.3 No
morɨt
mɨn
sɨrɨp
mup , asuk , yamak
no
morɨt
mɨn
sɨrɨp
mup
asuk
yamak
that/those hot.place men/people group taro
yam
banana
ɨruk ɨruk
wako
akakma
ɨruk ɨruk
wako
akak
very good / beautiful / narakain garden/work gardening
sɨnɨ .
ma
sɨnɨ
people very
That group of hot place people were very good gardeners of taro, yam and banana
1.4 Mup , asuk , yamak wako
iyɨt
no
mup pit
yɨrɨ
gɨyan
iyɨt
no
mup pit
yɨrɨ
gɨyan
mup
asuk
yamak wako
taro
yam
banana garden/work stayed that/those taro they planted thing round
kwim kwimɨ dɨ
sakɨrikɨ wayi bɨtɨp
gɨyan bem dɨ .
kwim kwimɨ dɨ
sakɨrikɨ wayi bɨtɨp
gɨyan bem dɨ
different.kind.its smooth very clay pot round like it's
They made a taro yam and banana garden, and that taro they planted was round, big and a different
kind and very smooth like a round clay pot
Page 32
1.5 Asuk mɨn yɨrɨ
sakɨrik kiŋ
mɨrak
kwim kwimɨ dɨ
ɨnduŋyon
asuk mɨn yɨrɨ
sakɨrik kiŋ
mɨrak
kwim kwimɨ dɨ
ɨnduŋ
-yon
yam also thing smooth long and big of the yam long.it's different.kind.its skin
paptot
papte
mɨnidɨ
paptot
papte
mɨnidɨ
LOC
.
hold/touch hold/touch not able to
The yam was also long and very smooth it was not possible to touch it, it was so smooth
1.6 Ɨŋ
yamak mɨn yɨrɨ
gɨyan kwim kwimɨ dɨ
iyɨk
ɨŋ
yamak mɨn yɨrɨ
gɨyan kwim kwimɨ dɨ
iyɨ
and banana also thing bunch different.kind.its hang
yaŋ
ko ko iyɨt
yaŋ
ko ko iyɨ
uwi
a
gɨroŋ gɨroŋ
-k uwi
a
gɨroŋ gɨroŋ
SS trunk became? bent
.
-t
like.that go go hang
2/3PL.PST
The bunch of bananas was also a different kind, it was so heavy it would bend the trunk
2.1 Ɨŋ
kɨŋaye
bɨsawon
ɨŋ
kɨŋaye
bɨsaw
and galip nut time
sɨŋ
naŋ
, kɨŋaye
pɨŋ yɨwaŋɨŋ
batam
-on
kɨŋaye
pɨŋ yɨwaŋɨŋ
batam
LOC
galip nut left them to dry smashed banana and galip together
yiyɨk yiyɨk ɨŋiyɨt
.
sɨ
-ŋ na
-ŋ iyɨ
-k
iyɨ
-k
ɨŋ
iyɨ
cook
SS eat
SS stay
SS
stay
SS
stay
-t
1SG
And at the time of galip nuts, they used to take the galip nuts and dry them , cook them mashed up
with mashed bananas, eat them, and they used to be (ol i save stap)
2.2 Kɨŋaye
pɨŋ
yɨpgiyit tɨtaŋ
kɨŋaye
pɨŋ
yɨpgiyit tɨta
galip nut PL.OBJ they put crack
piyɨt
pɨrɨk
piyɨt
pɨrɨ
, ko wagen
-ta
ko wag
-en mup
SS left them
SSQ
go garden
LOC taro
yɨwata
, ko kayep
pɨŋ
pɨŋ
-k pɨŋ-
go yɨwa
-ta
ko kayep
SS PL.OBJ
go left them
SSQ
go firewood PL.OBJ
peɨk
pɨŋgo
tuwa
-ŋ peɨ
-k
cut and tie together
SS carry
3SG PL.OBJ
pɨŋ-
yusɨŋ
sa
daŋ
go yusɨ
-ŋ sa
go build
SS light (fire) burn
ɨŋkwɨra
, mup sa
da
peɨŋ
banyaŋ
ɨŋkwɨra
mup sa
da
peɨŋ
banya
it became
taro cooked in fire it was cooked scraped hit
tɨtaŋ
mup
-ŋ yɨwa
pɨŋgo
they had planted pull up
tuwaŋ
yɨwata
da
ɨwɨrak
-ŋ ɨwɨrak
SS hot embers
pɨraŋɨŋ
, kɨŋaye
-ŋ pɨraŋɨŋ
kɨŋaye
SS became soft
galip nut
yɨpgiyit waruŋ
ɨŋ
tɨta
-ŋ yɨpgiyit waruŋ
ɨŋ
crack
SS they put put in wooden pot (tong tong) and pounded together with a stick and
,
Page 33
nongat
mup kat
nongat
mup kat
with.that taro with (accompaniment)
waruŋ
ɨŋ
naŋ naŋ iyɨt
waruŋ
ɨŋ
naŋ naŋ iyɨt
.
put in wooden pot (tong tong) and pounded together with a stick and eat eat stayed
They used to take galip nuts, put them, crack them and leave them, they went to the garden and
pulled up and brought the taro they had planted and left them, went and got and cut and tied
firewood and carried and brought it and built a fire and set fire to it and it lit and turned to hot
embers, they cooked the taro in the fire until it was done and scraped (off the burnt bits) then
tenderised it with a knife (hit it with a knife to make it soft) then put it in a wooden pot (tong tong)
with the galip nuts they cracked and would eat it (check the end of this sentence)
2.3 Mup kat
, kɨŋaye
kat
mup kat
kɨŋaye
kat
taro with (accompaniment)
galip nut with (accompaniment)
waruŋ
a
kɨŋaye
warak
waruŋ
a
kɨŋaye
warak
put in wooden pot (tong tong) and pounded together with a stick became? galip nut oil
da
kwim kwim
sɨnɨ ɨŋkwɨra
naŋ warak banyaŋ
da
kwim kwim
sɨnɨ ɨŋkwɨra
naŋ warak banyaŋ
SOURCE different kind very it became eat oil
yiyɨk
yiyɨk
iyɨt
yiyɨk
yiyɨk
iyɨt
running down hands and mouth and body
.
stayed stayed stayed
They pounded the taro with galip nut and the galip oil made it become very different (delicious) and
.covered and ran down their hands and mouths
3.1 Kɨre yamak bamɨnɨ ɨŋgwɨra
no
yɨrɨ
naŋgin , kɨŋaye
tɨtaŋ
yɨwata
ko
kɨre yamak bamɨnɨ ɨŋgwɨra
no
yɨrɨ
naŋgin
tɨtaŋ
yɨwata
ko
OK
banana ready it became that/those thing same
wagen
kɨŋaye
galip nut cracked left them go
yamak pɨŋ yɨk
pɨŋ mandok
pɨŋgo
yɨwata
wag
-en yamak pɨŋ yɨk
pɨŋ mandok
pɨŋgo
yɨwa
garden
LOC banana put them in bilum carried them in a bilum brought them left them
kayep
pɨŋ
tuwaŋ
peɨk
pɨŋ
yusɨŋ
sa
daŋ
kayep
pɨŋ
tuwaŋ
peɨk
pɨŋ
yusɨŋ
sa
daŋ
,
-ta
SSQ
firewood PL.OBJ got and cut and tied carried PL.OBJ built fire cooked in fire it flamed
Page 34
ɨwɨrak
ɨŋgwɨra
, yamak sɨŋ
ɨwɨrak
ɨŋgwɨra
yamak sɨŋ
hot embers it became
gɨwɨk , nongat
kɨŋaye
kat
gɨwɨk
kɨŋaye
kat
banana cook peeled
nongat
with.that galip nut with (accompaniment)
waruŋ
ɨŋ
naŋ naŋ iyɨt
waruŋ
ɨŋ
naŋ naŋ iyɨt
.
put in wooden pot (tong tong) and pounded together with a stick and eat eat stayed
OK, when the banana was ready they did the same thing, they used to crack galip nuts and leave
them and go to the garden and put bananas in a bilum and carry them (in a bilum) and bring them
and leave them, they got and cut and tied firewood and carried it and built a fire and set fire to it
and it lit and became hot embers and they cooked the bananas and peeled them, pounded them
with galip nuts and would eat them
3.2 Kɨŋaye
kat
yamak kat
kɨŋaye
kat
yamak kat
galip nut with (accompaniment) banana with (accompaniment)
waruŋ
a
kɨŋaye
warak
waruŋ
a
kɨŋaye
warak
put in wooden pot (tong tong) and pounded together with a stick became? galip nut oil
da
kwim kwim
sɨnɨ a
ɨŋgwɨra
naŋ warak
da
kwim kwim
sɨnɨ a
ɨŋgwɨra
naŋ warak
SOURCE different kind very became? it became eat oil
banyaŋ
yiyɨk
yiyɨk
iyɨt
banyaŋ
yiyɨk
yiyɨk
iyɨt
.
running down hands and mouth and body stayed stayed stayed
They pounded the banana with galip nut and the galip oil made it become very different (delicious)
and covered and ran down their hands and mouths
4.1 Kɨre asuk pit
mɨn kareŋ
yakwa
kɨre asuk pit
mɨn kareŋ
yakwa
OK
yam they planted also they saw they were and
gurum
gurum
plant with leaves becoming many and twisted around some kind of support (sign there is food underneath)
ɨŋtaŋ
pɨkdaga kareŋɨŋ
ɨŋtaŋ
pɨkdaga kareŋɨŋ
did like this and dry
.
they saw and
THey also looked and saw that the yams they planted had shoots that had grown up a tree and
become big and they saw they were dry and
Page 35
4.2 Kɨre no
bamɨnɨ yaŋ
kareŋɨŋ
ko niɨŋ
kɨre no
bamɨnɨ yaŋ
kareŋɨŋ
ko niɨ
OK
tuwaŋ pɨŋbuyaŋ
-ŋ tuwaŋ pɨŋbuyaŋ
that/those ready like.that they saw and go
pɨŋgo
yɨwa
pakgwɨra
, ko suwa
pɨŋgo
yɨwa
pakgwɨra
ko suwa
brought them left them laid them down
tied
carried on shoulder
go coconut
korɨkɨ
warakɨ gesɨnɨ kareŋ
gɨwɨk
korɨkɨ
warakɨ gesɨnɨ kareŋ
gɨwɨk
dry coconut with a shoot coming out of it (Kru kokonas) oil
very
they saw husked
pɨŋgo
, yɨnɨŋ peɨŋ
dambɨk
ɨŋ
asuk kat
bɨtɨpon
sɨŋ
pɨŋgo
yɨnɨŋ peɨŋ
dambɨk
ɨŋ
asuk kat
bɨtɨpon
sɨŋ
brought them
cut up scraped extract milk and yam with (accompaniment) clay pot. in cook
naŋ yiyɨk
yiyɨk
iyɨt
naŋ yiyɨk
yiyɨk
iyɨt
.
eat stayed stayed stayed
OK, when they saw they were ready ike that, they went and dug and tied them and carried them on
the shoulder and brought them and left them and laid them, they went and saw a dry coconut with a
new shoot and lots of grease and husked them and brought them, cut them and scraped them and
extracted the milk and cooked them in a clay pot with the yam and would eat and stay.
5.1 No
bɨsawon
no
bɨsaw
that/those time
mɨnteyi nɨmit
kɨtaŋ
kwa yakiyɨt
-on mɨnteyi nɨmit
kɨtaŋ
kwa yakiyɨt
LOC married couple demonstrative? focus particle? one they were
no
monyi boyi
yɨrɨ
bɨroŋɨ , kɨtaŋnɨ
bɨroŋɨ kat
no
monyi boyi
yɨrɨ
bɨroŋɨ
bɨroŋɨ kat
that/those son
yakiyɨt
daughter thing two
kɨtaŋnɨ
those two? poss two
with (accompaniment)
.
yakiyɨt
they were
At that time, there was a married couple, they had two children a boy and a girl, they lived with
those two children
5.2 Yiyɨk gɨndat diŋɨ kwa kɨrap uwa kɨkeyo
yiyɨk
gɨndat diŋɨ kwa kɨrap uwa kɨkeyo
stayed day
ɨŋ
monyi boyi
yɨrɨ
ɨŋ
monyi boyi
yɨrɨ
one water bank they wanted to follow and son
daughter thing
ɨnomɨrak
din
kan yomen korɨp
sɨnɨ yakɨndi , ɨŋkwɨran nit
kɨrap
ɨnomɨrak
din
kan yomen korɨp
sɨnɨ yakɨndi
kɨrap
they (2) said you(two) this area
uwa kɨndo
yo
uwa kɨndo
yo
quiet / still / wait very stay
ɨŋkwɨran nit
and then we(two) water
.
bank let us two go INCEPTIVE (about to do something)
Page 36
They stayed and one day they wanted to follow the river bank, so they (2) told their son and
daughter "you two wait very quietly here in this area and we (2) are about to go along this
riverbank"
5.3 Naŋ
ɨnɨŋ ɨŋ
kɨrap uwa komɨrak
naŋ
ɨnɨŋ ɨŋ
kɨrap uwa k
like this said and water bank go
buwat matep sɨnɨ kwa ɨgɨmɨrak
, ko kɨrap kum
kwa kwɨyak kwɨyak taŋ
-omɨrak
ko kɨrap kum
kwa kwɨyak kwɨyak taŋ
2/3DU.PST
go water round one bail
bail
and
.
buwat matep sɨnɨ kwa ɨgɨmɨrak
eel
big
very one they (2) killed
They said like this and the two of them wnet along the river bank, they came to a lake/ puddle?
(raunwara - round area of water), they worked on bailing out the lake (in order to find fish or eels)
and they killed a very big eel
6.1 Ɨk
tuwaŋ ɨŋgwawan
monyi nitsoŋi
kɨtaŋnɨ
ɨk
tuwaŋ ɨŋgwawan
monyi nitsoŋi
kɨtaŋnɨ
they (2) killed carried made it come (brought it) child
kaŋ tamtam sɨnɨ yawomɨrak
brother and sister those two? poss
.
kaŋ tamtam sɨnɨ yawomɨrak
look happy very they (2) talked happily / excitedly
They killed it and carried it and brought it to their children, those siblings,. They (2) looked and were
very happy and talked (excitedly)
6.2 Yan
nunɨ
pinɨ
yɨrɨ
kat
moyi dɨmo sɨnɨ
yan
nunɨ
pinɨ
yɨrɨ
kat
moyi dɨmo sɨnɨ
They (2) talked mother their father their thing with (accompaniment) small NEG very
kɨsit
.
kɨsit
they were happy
They talked like this with their mother nad father and they were realy happy (lit. not a little bit
happy / ol i no isi long amamas / amamas nogut tru)
6.3 Kɨsɨŋ
iyɨt
kɨtat
nayeŋ
ɨŋ
sɨŋ
sakɨrɨk ɨŋ pɨtak
kɨsɨŋ
iyɨt
kɨtat
nayeŋ
ɨŋ
sɨŋ
sakɨrɨk ɨŋ
happy and stayed they rested they relaxed OBJ cook heated OBJ
pɨtak
got up
patot
pen ɨwaŋɨŋ monyi boyi
yɨrɨ
ɨnomɨrak
nitda
wagen
patot
pen ɨwaŋɨŋ monyi boyi
yɨrɨ
ɨnomɨrak
nitda
wag
ledge above fireplace on put it
son
daughter thing they (2) said we (2) garden
yɨrɨ dɨ
pɨŋ
pɨŋgwapdo
to sɨŋ
nono
yɨrɨ dɨ
pɨŋ
pɨŋgwapdo
to sɨŋ
nono
ko
-en ko
LOC go
.
food some PL.OBJ get and bring them to cook we eat
Page 37
They were happy and sata nd rested and relaxed, they cooked and heated it and lifted it and put it
on the ledge above the fireplace and they said to their son and daughter, we are going to the garden
to get some food and we will cook it and eat it
6.4 Naŋ
ɨnɨŋ ɨŋ
ɨnomɨrak
din
kan yomen korɨp
sɨnɨ yakɨndi .
naŋ
ɨnɨŋ ɨŋ
ɨnomɨrak
din
kan yomen korɨp
sɨnɨ yakɨndi
like this said and they (2) said you(two) this area
quiet / still / wait very stay
THey said like this and they said you(2) stay here very quietly
6.5 Naŋ
ɨnɨŋ ɨŋ
kokwɨran
nit soŋi
kɨtaŋ
katon
naŋ
ɨnɨŋ ɨŋ
kokwɨran
nit soŋi
kɨtaŋ
katon
like this said and they (2 ) went brother and sister demonstrative? focus particle? this
yon
yiyɨk
yiyɨk
kwɨran , buwat katon patotonda
pɨŋ
kɨrakon maŋgɨt
yon
yiyɨk
yiyɨk
kwɨran
pɨŋ
kɨrakon maŋgɨt
buwat katon patotonda
house. in stayed stayed while
eel
this
fireplace ledge.from PL.OBJ ashes.on fell down
mɨn
no
mɨn
sɨnɨ kwa yɨk
monyinɨ ke
a
maŋgwan
mɨn
no
mɨn
sɨnɨ kwa yɨk
monyinɨ ke
a
maŋgwan
men/people that/those men/people real one bilum small.its with became? it fell down
sotneyan
yumnɨ
kareŋ
pɨŋgo koyon
igɨt .
sotneyan
yumnɨ
kareŋ
pɨŋgo koy
-on igɨt
they surprised he left them he saw went bed
LOC sat
They said like this and they (2) went, and while the brother and sister stayed sitting in the house, this
eel fell down from the ledge on to the ashes. that one was a real man with a small bilum. They were
suprised but he saw them and ignored them and went and sat on the bed.
6.6 Iyɨk
ɨŋ
yɨk
monyin nɨyon gwi
kwasɨnɨ
deŋ
, kwasɨpnɨ
naŋ
iyɨk
ɨŋ
yɨk
monyin nɨyon gwi
kwasɨnɨ
deŋ
kwasɨpnɨ
naŋ
they sat and bilum small.in his
tobacco betelnut.his he got out
gwinɨ
sɨŋɨ
yaŋ
ɨŋ
ɨyan , kaŋ kwim
ɨŋ
ɨyan ɨnot
gwinɨ
sɨŋɨ
yaŋ
ɨŋ
ɨyan
kaŋ kwim
ɨŋ
ɨyan ɨnot
his tobacco smoked like.that and sat
his betelnut eat
.
look frightened and sat he told them
They sat and he took out tobacco and betelnut from his small bilum, he chewed his betelnut and
smoked his tobacco like that and sat, they looked and were very figthened and sat down and he told
them
6.7 Mamdin
datdin
mam
-din
dat
mother
2DU.POSS father
-din
yɨrɨ
wawan kaŋgu ɨnɨndi
, buwat kan
yɨrɨ
wawan kaŋgu ɨnɨndi
buwat kan
2DU.POSS thing come
when you two tell them
mɨn
sɨnɨ kwayo dɨmo sɨŋ
nono
yaŋ
ɨnɨndi
mɨn
sɨnɨ kwayo dɨmo sɨŋ
nono
yaŋ
ɨnɨndi
men/people real one
eel
this
.
NEG cook we eat like.that you two tell them
When your mother and father come, you two tell them this eel is a man and you can#t cook it
Page 38
6.8 Naŋ
ɨnɨŋɨ
towɨn
pɨŋogo
patot
pen patgɨt
naŋ
ɨnɨŋɨ
towɨn
pɨŋogo
patot
pen patgɨt
.
like this he told them returned back went back up ledge above fireplace on lay down
He said like this and returned and went back up on to the ledge over the fireplace and lay down
6.9 Ɨŋkwɨran
nunɨ
pinɨ
yɨrɨ
waken
nunɨ
pinɨ
yɨrɨ
wak
ɨŋ
-kwɨran
and
DS.2/3DU mother their father their thing garden
kukaŋ
yɨwaŋ
iyɨkwɨran
, no
gɨtda
wa
yɨk
-en gɨtda
wa
yɨk
LOC from the come bilum
mɨnda
ɨnot
kuka
-ŋ yɨwa
-ŋ iyɨ
-kwɨran
no
mɨn
da
remove
SS left them
SS stay
DS.2/3DU
that/those men/people
naŋ
nunɨ
pinɨ
yɨrɨ
inomirak
, yaŋ
naŋ
nunɨ
pinɨ
yɨrɨ
inomirak
yaŋ
like this mother their father their thing they (2) told those two
pinɨa
pɨtak
ɨnot
pinɨa
pɨtak
ɨn
dinda
din
-ot
da
their (2) father got up say
2PL.IMP you(two)
teyi
an
ɨŋpitak
teyi
an
ɨŋ
covered / stuck to it caused OBJ
-ot
SOURCE say
3SG.PST
ɨyan
ɨy
-an
they two said sit
DS.2/3DU
an
maŋ
kɨrakɨ
an
maŋ
kɨrakɨ
SOURCE caused fell down ashes
yiyɨkɨŋ
ɨwaŋ
pitak
ɨn
yaŋ
-ŋ yiyɨkɨŋ
ɨwa
got up put
kɨsɨŋ
ya
-ŋ kɨsɨ
SS you sat down
-ŋ
be happy
SS
?
ɨyemɨrak
ɨy
-e
-mɨrak
sit
PRES
2/3DU
And then their mother and father came back from the garden and took off their bilum and left it and
sat down, and the two of them told their mother and father what the man had told them, they sat
like that and their father got up and he told them ' you two made it fall down and the ashes covered
it, you lifeted it up and put it back and sat down and talked and were happy and sat down
6.10 Yaŋ
yaŋ
ɨnɨŋ
ɨnɨ
like.that say
dawaŋ
panyiran
paraŋ
-ŋ dawa
-ŋ p-
anyi
-ran
para
SS hit
SS PL.OBJ
chase
DS.3SG go out
komɨrak
.
-ŋ k
-omɨrak
SS go
2/3DU.PST
He said like that and hit them and chased them and they went outside and went
6.11 Kokwɨran
yumnɨ
kareŋ
yumnɨ
kare
ko
-kwɨran
go
DS.2/3DU he left them see
matnɨ
a
yɨrɨ saweyan
a
yɨrɨ sawey
mat
-nɨ
wife
3.POSS became? food peel
buwat katon ɨŋ paraŋ
yɨnɨŋ
kwɨran ,
-ŋ buwat katon ɨŋ
para
-ŋ yɨnɨ
-ŋ kwɨran
SS eel
go out
SS cut up
SS while
somɨrak
.
this
bɨtɨpon
-an
bɨtɨp
DS.3SG clay pot
OBJ
-on s
-omɨrak
LOC cook
2/3DU.PST
They went and he left them (ignored them?) and took down the eel and cut it up, while his wife
peeled food and they (2) cooked it in a clay pot.
Page 39
6.12 San
daŋ borɨkgwan ankwan
dɨrɨk
iyɨkwɨra mɨn
nɨmit
san
daŋ borɨkgwan ankwan
dɨrɨk
iyɨkwɨra mɨn
nɨmit
They cooked cook finished
took it off fire shared / divided sat down men/people married
kwa ogɨmɨrak , wan kareŋ
yawomɨrak , kerak sɨnɨ sɨnɨ mɨn
yɨrɨ
sɨŋ
kwa ogɨmɨrak
wan kareŋ
yawomɨrak
yɨrɨ
sɨŋ
one came up
came they saw they said
dɨrɨkdeŋ
yaŋ
nuk gu
ɨrokweŋ
dɨrɨkdeŋ
yaŋ
nuk gu
ɨrokweŋ
kerak sɨnɨ sɨnɨ mɨn
beach very very men/people thing cook
.
while sharing like.that you know you come up
THey cooked and when it had finished cooking they took it off the fire and divided it and sat down,
and another married couple came up. They came and they (original couple?) looked and they said
you are like beach people, because you know when people are cookign and dividing food and then
you come'
6.13 Naŋ
yaŋɨŋ yɨrɨ somirak
dɨrɨk
yumnɨ
kareŋ
niyo
naŋ
naŋ
yaŋɨŋ yɨrɨ somirak
dɨrɨk
yumnɨ
kareŋ
niyo
naŋ
like this said
food they cooked shared / divided he left them they saw themselves eat
ɨŋ
yumnɨ karegɨmɨrak .
ɨŋ
yumnɨ karegɨmɨrak
and they ignored them
They said like this, and they cooked the food and divided it and ignored them and they ate
themselves and ignored them
6.14 Ɨŋkwɨran mɨn
nɨmit
tɨmɨdɨ
kareŋ
iyɨk
pɨreŋ yutdakat
ɨŋkwɨran mɨn
nɨmit
tɨmɨdɨ
kareŋ
iyɨk
pɨreŋ yutdakat
and then men/people married sit a bit they saw they sat not? behind the house
.
ɨrokomɨrak
ɨrokomɨrak
they (2) went out
And then this married couple stayed a bit and saw that not (they didn't get any food) and so they sat
behind the house
6.15 Ɨroko
nitsoŋi
kɨtaŋ
katon kareŋ
ɨnomɨrak
ɨroko
nitsoŋi
kɨtaŋ
katon kareŋ
ɨnomɨrak
came.out brother and sister demonstrative? focus particle? this
they saw they (2) said
din
ɨwikgin sɨnɨ eŋ domɨŋ
satɨm kasɨnɨyon sɨnɨ , kɨwap
kɨyaŋ
din
ɨwikgin sɨnɨ eŋ domɨŋ
satɨm kasɨnɨyon sɨnɨ
kɨyaŋ
you(two) now
very up Domung place cold
tamon din
kɨrak
tamon din
k
leaf
you(two) go
very
,
kɨwap
very cold climate pandanus sp.
, yaŋ
ɨnan
komɨrak
-ɨrak
yaŋ
ɨnan
k
2DU.IMP
like.that they said to them go
.
-omɨrak
2/3DU.PST
Page 40
They came out and they saw the brother and sister and they said to them 'you two go right now to
Domung, a very cold place where the leaves of the cold species of pandanus are' they said like that
to them and they (2) went.
6.16 Kokwɨran
mɨn teyi nɨ
a
wipnɨ
tet
kwɨraŋ , wip garasam
ɨŋ
kokwɨran
mɨn teyi nɨ
a
wipnɨ
tet
kwɨraŋ
ɨŋ
wip garasam
they (2 ) went her husband became? bow. his rope took off
kup
niŋ kwɨran matnɨ
a
yɨknɨyon
kup
niŋ kwɨran matnɨ
a
yɨknɨyon
ground dug while
bow bun bilong bunara and
,
wife.his became? inside her bilum
aŋgwɨra kɨyaton
, kɨrap kaŋ pot
deŋ
aŋgwɨra kɨyaton
kɨrap kaŋ pot
deŋ
water container that beach people use made from shell coconut
water look put in he got out
ɨyam pɨrɨk
ɨŋtakɨran no
mɨn teynɨ
a
kup
niŋgɨton
ɨyam pɨrɨk
ɨŋtakɨran no
mɨn teynɨ
a
kup
niŋgɨton
lid
they pulled up poured it that/those her husband became? ground he had dug
maŋgit
ɨŋkɨranɨŋ
bot pɨŋ
nɨmit
katon pɨŋgo
dapgɨt
maŋgit
ɨŋkɨranɨŋ
bot pɨŋ
nɨmit
katon pɨŋgo
dapgɨt
poured it down she did this and landslide appeared married this
.
brought them killed them
They (2) went, and her husband (of the new married couple) took the rope off his bow and used the
'bone' of his bow to dig the ground, while his wife got out the water container from her bilum in
which she had filled water, and poured it down on the ground that her husband had dug. They did
this and a landslide came and killed this married couple (that killed the eel)
7 Ɨŋkwɨran monyi nitsoŋi
kɨtaŋ
katon eŋ kɨwap
ɨŋkwɨran monyi nitsoŋi
kɨtaŋ
katon eŋ kɨwap
and then child
brother and sister demonstrative? focus particle? this
up very cold climate
kɨyaŋ
tamon ɨkomɨrak
mɨn
soŋi
orɨŋ
mɨnamɨ dakot
kɨyaŋ
tamon ɨkomɨrak
mɨn
soŋi
orɨŋ
mɨnamɨ dakot
pandanus sp. leaf
they (2) went up men/people brother.her bird sp. bird
ɨŋkwɨra
boyi
mɨn
dawɨŋ gaman mɨnamɨ dakot
ɨŋkwɨra
boyi
mɨn
dawɨŋ gaman mɨnamɨ dakot
it became daughter men/people bird sp
bird
,
changed into
.
changed into
And then the cildren brother and sister went up to the place where the cold climate pandaus leaves
are and her brother turned into an Oring bird and his sister changed into a Dawing Gaman bird
8 Naŋ
gin mekanɨ wa
non
naŋ
dakek
naŋ
gin mekanɨ wa
non
naŋ
dakek
like this still story
come there like this finish
Like this, this story finishes like this.
Page 41