Running head: ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY
Adolescent Pregnancy and Effects on the Mother and Child
Zachary Zwiernikowski
Ferris State University
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Adolescent Pregnancy and Effects on the Mother and Child
Teen Moms and Their Children: At Risk Populations
The majority of sexually active females have her first experience with sexual
intercourse as an adolescent, defined by the age range of 10 years of age to 19 years of age
(Finer & Philbin, 2013). Percentage of adolescent pregnancy, however, has been on the
decline for the past decade, now account for 13% of all births on an annual basis (Harkness
& DeMarko, 2012, p. 441). Even though there have been a decreasing number of
adolescent births, the risk factors and adverse effects for both the child and mother are
ever present.
Herrman (2008), expands on many perceptions of teen parents. These perceptions
seemed to provide research with both negative, as well as positive, stereotypes. One
stereotypes noted within the study were changed perceptions in relationships with friends,
partners, and family. The teens interviewed displayed mixed reactions with some
individuals noticing a decrease in close relationship and others noticing greatly
strengthened relationships. Herman notes, “teens voiced interesting perspectives related
to how a teen birth is viewed in relation to the public” (p. 45). Public opinions, most teen
mothers explain, tend to be expressed in negative stereotypes. These teens identify others’
thoughts as being, “teens are unable to be adequate parents”, and “ don’t want to do
anything with their life.” These same teens note that they get labeled and judged without
people hearing or understanding their situations. Individuals also stated that a majority of
the public assumed that adolescent pregnancy was primarily the females’ fault (p. 46).
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Impact on future education and employment is also brought to attention by
Herman’s research. Public opinion shows that the general thought in having a child while
still in secondary school diminishes the adolescent mother’s chance of completing high
school. Added to the stress of managing school and a newborn child, one teen points out, is
the added cost of paying for day care and baby supplies, requiring a job. On the flipside,
many adolescent parents add that having a child encouraged them to work harder in school
to provide a good life for the child, away from the stereotypical poverty associated with
adolescent pregnancy and high school drop outs (p. 46).
Perhaps the most important factor to having children as an adolescent is the impact
on the mother’s perception of herself. Even after confronting all the stereotypes associated
with teenage pregnancy, adolescent mothers shared a common thought that their children
provided them with maturity and drive that was not present before their pregnancy.
Overall, teen parents indicate that the benefits of having a child, even though at an
unplanned stage, outweigh the negatives. Most of these adolescents note the increase of
household responsibilities as both a benefit and hindrance while in school, but if overcome,
provides them with maturity to make them successful parents (p. 47).
One final stereotype noted individually is that adolescents raised by a single parent
are more likely to become adolescent parents. Demographics not related to single
parenting also play a role in adolescent pregnancy.
Population Demographics
All ethnicities are not equally accounted for when accounting for adolescent
pregnancy. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2011) provide data on teen
pregnancy throughout the United States involving females aged 15 to 19. The incidence
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rate for non-Hispanic white pregnancies are cited around 30 adolescent live births per
1,000 females of the identified age group, with rates of 70, 60, 20, and 85 for Black,
American Indian, Asian American, and Hispanic ethnicities respectively (p. 2). According to
the Office of Adolescent Health (2011), the incidence rates for adolescent pregnancy in
Michigan were quite different than the national reports. This is primarily due to less ethnic
diversity within the state of Michigan. Non-Hispanic whites hold the largest percent of
adolescent births at 51%, followed by non-Hispanic blacks at 38%, with Hispanic decent
teens birthing only 10%, compared to having the majority of adolescent births throughout
the nation. American Indian and Asian adolescents only birthed 1% of the Michigan
adolescent births each. Available data from the District Health Department #10 of Mecosta
County (2011), does not include ethnic data for adolescent births. The data made available
does however compare Mecosta County to the rest of DHD#10 as well as the overall state of
Michigan. Mecosta County’s teen pregnancy rate is 32.4 per 1,000 females ages 15-19,
compared to 56 and 53.6 out of 1,000 for DHD#10 and the State of Michigan, respectively.
Based on this data, Mecosta County is below the target goal for Healthy People 2020’s teen
pregnancy initiative where DHD #10 and Michigan as a whole are above the target goal for
Healthy People 2020 (p. 32).
Health Concerns
Many factors attribute to adolescent pregnancy. These factors are all health
concerns to the mother and child. The mother may consider each of the factors leading up
to pregnancy to be health concerns due to the medical, financial, and social implications
that adolescent pregnancy may have on the rest of the mothers and/or child’s life.
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Factors that affect the mother before the child are the incidences that lead up to the
pregnancy. The first constituent that attributes to adolescent pregnancy is the use or
misuse of contraceptives. Only “60% of sexually active adolescents said that they used a
condom the last time they had sex, and 18% used birth control pills” (Murray & McKinney
2014, p. 477). In the same way as the misuse or un-use of contraceptives, the inability to
recognize the full outcome of a sexual encounter plays an important role. In the moment,
teens may not be thinking about the possibility of pregnancy when involved in a sexual
relationship. Other factors may have negative implications on both the mother and child.
Murray & McKinney (2014) also indicate “Adolescents who give birth are more
likely to have a low income, which may mean that they have less access to contraception
and abortion.” When individuals with a low income get pregnant, they may be at a deficit
of knowledge for prenatal care as well as postnatal infant care. Only 50% of adolescent
mothers finish high school by age 22, compared to their peers who have not given birth.
Pregnancy is the leading cause of high school drop out and less than 2% of teen mothers
achieve a college degree by the age of 30 (p. 479). Because of these educational deficits, the
children of teen mothers may not receive the same medical care and educational drive that
may be needed to overcome their initial post-natal deficits.
Maternal health individually can be affected by pregnancy. While most adolescent
pregnancies proceed without complications, some health patterns may be affected in ways
that adult pregnancies may not. There is an increased risk of anemia and pregnancy
associated hypertension as well as an increased risk of infections and STD’s. Nutritional
deficiencies are of great health risk for adolescents. Nutrition is overlooked by many
adolescents for ease and readiness of other food options, especially when finances aren’t
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well managed, as is the case with many adolescent pregnancies (p. 479). The children of
teen mothers, like the teen mothers themselves, may not be appropriate weight and body
size compared to their peers. Between all health issues, low birth weight is a prevalent
issue when it comes to adolescent pregnancy and should be addressed as a health care
need.
Low Birth Weight: A Health Issues
Roth, Hendrickson, Shilling, and Stowell (1998) define “low birth weight” as any
birth weight less than 5.5 lbs. Low birth weight effects 1.5% of all live births, but account
for over 50% of all neonatal deaths after birth (Horbar, Carpenter, Badger, Kenny, Soll,
Morrow, & Buzas, 2012). This information is shown in Appendix A. The etiology of low
birth weights in infants may be one of many. Low birth weight may be associated with
preterm birth or fetal growth restriction. A more prevalent cause of low birth weight is
poor placental perfusion and lower-than-normal amount of vasculature in the uterus. This
decrease in placental or uterine perfusion may cause low birth weight even in pregnancies
that deliver full term. A biological factor of reduced overall blood supply may predispose
young mothers to infections, causing preterm labor and ultimately ending in a great risk for
low birth weight. Depending on age of the adolescent mother, even more problems may
arise. Younger, undereducated teenagers who are unfamiliar with the regularity of her
menstrual cycles may not notice that she has been without ovulation for many weeks.
Because of this, prenatal care and nutrition may not be properly addressed, thus
predisposing the child for low birth weight from the beginning of his or her gestation.
Often, pregnant adolescents are more concerned about their personal appearance than
thinking about the health and nutrition of a child, especially during the first and second
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trimester when they themselves may not realize that they are pregnant (p. 271-73).
It is important as health care personnel to help adolescents learn about and
understand the affects of pregnancy on both themselves and their child. Three goals are
noted in reducing the risk of adolescent pregnancy. A primary goal of reducing the
likelihood of low birth weights is to promote healthy lifestyle choices. By promoting
healthy lifestyle choices such as education on drugs and alcohol, adolescents are less likely
to allow themselves to be in positions where unwanted sexual relations is possible.
Teaching adolescents about reproduction and the affect that pregnancy has on the body
also helps to enforce proper nutrition when and if they do get pregnant, as well as
understand the signs of pregnancy and the correct way to care for their child. Finally,
teaching about unwanted pregnancy helps adolescence to understand the responsibility
that taking care of a child entails (Roth, Hendrickson, Shilling, and Stowell, 1998). By
preventing adolescent pregnancy through education, low birth weight due to adolescent
pregnancy is effectively eradicated. Though it is not feasible by any means to completely
bar adolescent pregnancy, continued education and promotion of healthy behaviors helps
to curtail the problem of low birth weights due to adolescent pregnancy. By providing
opportunities, whether in school or out of school, nurses can be an active part of the
community and a valuable source of maintaining and improving adolescent health.
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Appendix A
Mortality and Morbidity of Low Birth Weight
Morbidity
Mortality
(Affected individuals)
(Associated deaths)
Percentage of
affected
neonates
1.5% of all live births
50% of all neonatal deaths
Information provided by Horbar, Carpenter, Badger, Kenny, Soll, Morrow, & Buzas, 2012.
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Works Cited
Center of Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). Teen pregnancy. Division of
Reproductive Health. Retrieved from CDC website.
District Health Department #10. (2011). Health profile chartbook: Mecosta county.
Retrieved from www.dhd10.org/chartbooks.
Finer, L. & Philbin, J. (2013). Sexual initiation, contraceptive use, and pregnancy among
young adolescents. Pedatrics 131(5). Retrieved from CINAHL database.
Harkness, G. & DeMarko, R. (2012). Community and public health nursing: Evidence for
practice. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Herrman, J. (2008). Adolescent perceptions of teen births. Journal of Obstetrics,
Gynecology, and Neonatal Nursing. 37(1). Retrieved from CINAHL database.
Horbar,J., Carpenter, J., Badger, G., Kenny, M., Soll, R., Morrow, K., & Buzas, J. (2012).
Mortality and neonatal morbidity among infants 501 to 1500 grams from 2000 to
2009. Pediatrics. Retrieved from PubMed database.
Murray & McKinney. (2014). Foundations of maternal-newborn and women’s health
nursing (6th ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Saunders.
Office of Adolescent Health. (2011). Michigan adolescent reproductive health facts.
Retrieved from http://www.hhs.gov
Roth, J., Hendrickson, J., Shilling, M., & Stowell, D. (1998). The risk of teen mothers having
low birth weight babies: Implications of recent medical research for school health
personnel. Journal of School Health. 68(7). Retreived from CINAHL database.