Guide to Ethical Decision-Making
by Ashia Bridges, Spring 2012
Ethical Dilemmas
As you were taught in your foundation social work courses, you may be faced with an ethical
dilemma at some point of your social work career, including during your practicum and training
experiences (Harrington & Dolgof, 2008, Yeung, Ying Ho, et al, 2010). Given that you are
required to comply with the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics in
order to uphold your professional standing – what would you do to address this dilemma?
(Congress, 2000; NASW, 2008).
Ethical dilemmas do not always have a narrow and clear cut response (unless there is evidence
of breaking the law or accepted regulations) (CIMA, 2012). For instance, there may be conflicts
of interest, questions about confidentiality and privacy, or questions about professionalism and
competence in your organization and amongst your colleagues. Thus, answering this question
may be harder than you think.
NASW Code of Ethics
By using the Code as guidance, social workers and students can review their options and decide
on a course of action in order to resolve the issue (CIMA, 2012; Yeung, Ying Ho, et al, 2010). As
a professional or one in training, you have a responsibility and a duty to exercise good judgment
and be accountable for your actions to the profession and the public (Congress, 2000; NASW,
2008; Yeung, Ying Ho, et al, 2010). This includes responsibilities as professionals, in practice
settings, to colleagues, and to clients (Congress, 2000; NASW, 1996).
Ethical Decision Making
There are plenty of professional journal articles on social work values and ethics, the Code of
Ethics and its new provisions, and ethical decision making (Chenoweth & McAuliffe, 2008;
Congress, n.d.; Congress, 2000; Gray & Gibbons, 2007; Harrington & Dolgof, 2008; Russell &
Keller, 2011; Yeung, Ying Ho, et al, 2010). These values and ethical principles are useful only if
social workers know how to implement them in practice (Congress, 2000; Russell and Keller,
2011). Thus, a few process models, including the ETHIC model of Decision Making and the
Inclusive Model of Ethical Decision Making, have been developed to make decision making fast,
simple, and applicable to a wide variety of dilemmas (Chenoweth & McAuliffe, 2008; Congress,
2000, Gray & Gibbons, 2007).
The ETHIC model is a process model that uses a logical, systematic, and prescriptive approach
to address dilemmas (Congress, 2000) (See Table 1.); whereas the Inclusive model, hence its
name, uses a more comprehensive approach that incorporates aspect of the process (rational),
reflective (intuitive), and cultural models (Chenoweth & McAuliffe, 2008) (See Table 2.). The
following case study, based on a Kingdom House practicum student’s experience, will
demonstrate how the ETHIC model and the Inclusive Model work in practice.
Both of these models are highlighted to show that there may be several appropriate ways of
addressing this and similar dilemmas, as long as they follow the fundamental principles which a
social worker is required to uphold (See Table 3.):






Service
Social Justice
Dignity and Worth of the Person
Importance of Human Relationships
Integrity
Competence
Case Study
You are a practicum student at a community center and have been working with teens in a youth
outreach program, as an assistant under two facilitators. One of the facilitators, a colleague from
an allied organization, has been engaging in questionable behavior with the youth – hitting,
pushing, pinching, and sarcastic teasing. You believe that this behavior displayed is rough horseplay and may be corporal punishment since it is linked with discipline and classroom
management most of the time. You are worried about the appropriateness of this behavior.
What would you do to address this dilemma? Read through the guidelines of the following
models and apply them to the case study above or your own ethical dilemma. Resources for the
case study are in the appendix (See Resources) .
ETHIC Model. According to the ETHIC model, here are the steps that social workers should
follow (Congress, 2000) (See Table 1. & Table 4.):
E. Examine relevant personal, societal, agency, client and professional values.



Assess your own personal values. Ask if decisions are based on personal rather than
professional values.
Examine and take into account the client’s values.
Examine relevant societal, agency, and professional values.
T. Think about what ethical standard of the NASW code of ethics applies, as well as relevant
laws and case decisions.
The ethical standards in the NASW Code of Ethics are divided into six sections: Social workers’
ethical responsibilities to clients, colleagues, practice settings, as professionals, to the
profession, and to the broader society.


Examine the section(s) under which the dilemma falls under
Be cognizant of relevant federal, state, and local laws that may affect the ethical
dilemmas they encounter. According to Congress (2000), while laws and social work
ethics usually coincide, there may be times when they conflict. The social worker needs
to be aware when a law or regulation may be unethical.
H. Hypothesize about possible consequences of different decisions.

Think about different scenarios. List pros and cons of each. Hypothesize which
alternative would be preferred.
I. Identify who will benefit and who will be harmed in view of social work’s commitment to the
most vulnerable.

When choosing between two bad alternatives, which is often the case, follow the
governing principle of “concern for the most vulnerable” (Congress, 2000, p. 12). Chose
the alternative that will “expand choice and opportunity for all persons ,with special
regard for vulnerable, disadvantaged, oppressed, and exploited persons and groups
(NASW, 1996, p. 27)
C. Consult with supervisor and colleagues about the most ethical choice.

If available, consult with colleagues or your supervisor; they may offer helpful new
information or alternatives.
Inclusive Model. Chenoweth and McAuliffe (2008) share helpful questions that can be asked
at each stage of addressing dilemmas with the Inclusive model (See Table 2. & 5.):
Step One: Defining the Ethical Dilemma

Can you clearly define competing ethical principles in this situation? If so, what are
they? If not, do you need to consult with an appropriate other to clarify your thoughts?
Are issues of culture involved here? (consultation; cultural sensitivity)

If you determine that this is an ethical dilemma, where are you placed within it? Is it
your role to make a decision, or should this situation be referred to someone with higher
authority? (accountability)

Is this situation familiar to you or do you need new knowledge? Can you draw on past
experience or on what you have learnt from work in other contexts? (critical reflection)
Step Two: Mapping Legitimacy

Who has legitimacy in this situation? Who is included and who is excluded? Are there
any cultural factors to take into account (e.g., extended family or kin in the case of
indigenous clients)? (cultural sensitivity)

Is it appropriate to share this ethical dilemma with others? Is this an ethical dilemma
that you are facing alone, or are others also involved? Who should be talking to whom at
this stage? (consultation; accountability; critical reflection)
Step Three: Gathering Information

What guidance is provided by professional codes of ethics, protocols, policies or
procedures, and are there any legal considerations? (accountability)

Are there any conflicts between personal values, professional requirements and
organizational mandates, and are these conflicts likely to present problems for the
decision-maker or others? (critical reflection)

Are there other resources that could shed light on this dilemma such as research,
literature or the experiences of others? (consultation, critical reflection)

Who could be consulted at this stage for the acquisition of new knowledge, or for
clarification of positions taken by ethical codes, policies or law? (consultation)

Is specific cultural knowledge required, and if so, who should be consulted for this?
(cultural sensitivity)
Step Four: Alternative Approaches and Action

What are the available courses of action now that you have gathered knowledge and
information and considered the range of value positions? (accountability)

On what basis will you make this decision and how will you justify your actions?
(accountability)

Are you missing other alternatives, and how can you be sure that you have weighed up all
the options? Who can you talk to about this and can someone else play ‘devil’s advocate’
to help you clarify your position? (consultation)

Are any of these options culturally discriminatory or insensitive? (cultural sensitivity)

How do you feel about the decision you have come to, and is there anything you need to
do differently? Can you live with this decision and can you justify it if called upon?

How do you implement and document this decision? (critical reflection; accountability)
Step Five: Critical Analysis and Evaluation

What have you learnt from this situation about the way you make decisions and have you
changed your behavior from previous decision-making patterns? (critical reflection)

Do you feel confident that you acted in a culturally sensitive manner throughout the
process or were there any aspects of culture that you neglected to explore? (cultural
sensitivity)
Weaknesses and Strengths of the Ethical Decision Making Models
Since ethical decision making is complex, using one of these models may seem too timeconsuming, when you first implement it. In addition, you may face barriers such as not having
time to do research or reflect; and not having available colleagues to consult (Chenoweth and
McAuliffe, 2008). However, with practice, the process of ethical decision-making should
become routine.
According to Gray and Gibbons (2007), another downfall of these models is that they may
overemphasize the rational aspects of ethical decision making and discourage social workers
from thinking creatively. Gray and Gibbons (2007) explain that social workers should think
critically, respond intuitively, and utilize their understanding of the situation based on their own
experiences and the context. In addition, they argue that:
“Dilemmas can only be resolved through active dialogue and a process of moral
reasoning, where existing knowledge, theory, skills, values, and ethical guidelines are
brought together to inform the decision making process.”
In defense of the models, both highlighted provide opportunities for active dialogue
(consultation) and critical thinking; also, the models are only tools, which can be used in the
most useful fashion for each social worker. In addition, social workers can still think intuitively
and creatively when using these tools or aspects of them.
In fact, the social work student from the case study did not stumble upon the models until after
she had 1) Defined the Dilemma; 2) Examined relevant personal, societal, agency, client and
professional values; 3) Thought about what ethical standard of the NASW code of ethics
applies, as well as relevant laws and case decisions; 3) Gathered Information; 4) Hypothesized
about possible consequences of different decisions; 5) Identified who will benefit and who will
be harmed in view of social work’s commitment to the most vulnerable; and 6) Consulted with
supervisor and colleagues about the most ethical choice. Thus, the models are not mutually
inclusive to critical thinking and intuitive and creative decision making.
Conclusion
As a social worker, you will inevitably encounter ethical dilemmas. To uphold your professional
values and ethical principles, you will have to take action to resolve these situations. By
definition, there will be alternative ways of handling these situations. Research and utilize
evidence-based approaches and models about ethical decision making, such as the ETHIC
model or the Inclusive model. These models as shown can be helpful in assessing and evaluating
dilemmas, and helping with deciding courses of action. Although these models have weaknesses,
such as being time-consuming with first usage, these models can be implemented in routine
practice and can complement critical and creative thinking. Thus, with time and practice you
wil be able to address ethical dilemma professionally and with good judgment.
References
Charter Institute of Management Accountant (CIMA). (n.d.). Ethical Dilemmas: What would
you do? Retrieved May 2012
http://www.cimaglobal.com/Documents/Professional%20ethics%20docs/dilemmas%2
0FINAL.pdf
Chenoweth, L. & McAuliffe D. (2008). Leave No Stone Unturned: The Inclusive Model of
Ethical Decision Making. Ethics and Social Welfare, 2(1), 38-49
Congress. (n.d.). Real Cases Project: Teaching Guide for Social Work Ethics. Retrieved from
http://socialwork.adelphi.edu/realcases/pdfs/teaching_guides/Social%20Work%20Eth
ics%20Guide.pdf
Congress. (2000). What Social Workers Should Know About Ethics: Understanding and
Resolving Practice Dilemmas. Advances in Social Work, 1(1), 1-25
Gray, M. and Gibbons, J. (2007). There are no Answers, Only Choices: Teaching Ethical
Decision Making in Social Work. Australian Social Work, 60(2), 222- 238
Harrington, D. and Dolgof, R.(2008). Hierarchies of Ethical Principles for Ethical Decision
Making in Social Work. Ethics and Social Welfare, 2(2)
Russell, K.Z. and Keller, J.G. (2011). Ethics Symposium and Beyond: A Model for Teaching and
Assessing Ethical Competence.
National Association of Social Workers (NASW). (1996). Code of Ethics. Retrieved May 2012
from http://www.sp2.upenn.edu/docs/resources/nasw_code_of_ethics.pdf
National Association of Social Workers (NASW). (2008). Code of Ethics. Retrieved May 11, 2012
from http://www.socialworkers.org/pubs/code/code.asp
Yeung, K., Ying Ho, A., Hui Lo, M., and Chan, E. (2010). Social Work Ethical Decision Making
in an Inter-Disciplinary Context. British Journal of Social Work 40, 1573–1590
Appendix
Resources:
Behavior Management
Behavior Management Models. (n.d). Retrieved May 22, 2012 from
http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/40497_1.pdf
Boulden, W. T. (2010). The Behavior Intervention Support Team (BIST) Program: Underlying
Theories. Reclaiming Children And Youth, 19(1), 17-21.
Cowen, P.S. (2001). Effectiveness of a Parent Education Intervention for At-Risk Families.
Journal of the Society of Pediatric Nurses, 6(2), 73Freiberg, H., and Lamb, S. M. (2009). Dimensions of Person-Centered Classroom Management.
Theory Into Practice, 48(2), 99-105.
Little, S. G., and Akin-Little, A. (2008). Psychology's contributions to classroom management.
Psychology In The Schools, 45(3), 227-234.
McDonald, T. (2010). Positive Learning Framework: Creating Learning Environments in Which
All Children Thrive. Reclaiming Children & Youth 19(2): 16-20.
Moore Partin, T.C, Robertson, R.E., Maggin, D.M., Oliver, R.M., and Wehby. J.H.. (2009)
Using Teacher Praise and Opportunities to Respond to Promote Appropriate Student
Behavior. Preventing School Failure, 54(3), 172-178.
Pearl, E. S. (2009). Parent management training for reducing oppositional and aggressive
behavior in preschoolers. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 14(5), 295-305
Project PARA - University of Nebraska-Lincoln (n.d.) Lesson 1: Purpose and Philosophy of
Behavior Management. Retrieved May 22, 2012 from
http://para.unl.edu/legacy/Behavior/lesson1.php
Positive Discipline. (2012). What is Positive Discipline? Retrieved May 22, 2012 from
http://www.positivediscipline.com/what-is-positive-discipline.html
McKee, L., Roland, E., Coffelt, N., Olson, A., Forehand, R., Massari, C., & ... Zens, M. (2007).
Harsh Discipline and Child Problem Behaviors: The Roles of Positive Parenting and
Gender. Journal Of Family Violence, 22(4), 187-196.
Metu.edu. (n.d). The Positive Discipline Model. Retrieved May 22, 2012 from
http://www.metu.edu.tr/~e133376/project/The%20Positive%20Discipline%20Model.ht
m
Corporal Punishment
Dupper, D. R., & Montgomery Dingus, A. E. (2008). Corporal Punishment in U.S. Public
Schools: A Continuing Challenge for School Social Workers. Children & Schools, 30(4),
243-250.
National Association of Social Workers. (2006). Physical punishment of children. In Social work
speaks: National Association of Social Workers policy statements, 2006-2009 (7th ed.,
pp. 290-295). Washington, DC: NASW Press. Retrieved May 22, 2012
http://www.naswdc.org/resources/abstracts/abstracts/physical.asp
Ethical Decision Making
Koocher, G.P and Spiegel, P. K. (2009). What Should I Do?" - Ethical Risks, Making Decisions,
and Taking Action. Retrieved May 22, 2012 from
http://www.continuingedcourses.net/active/courses/course050.php
Tables.
Table 1. ETHIC Model of Decision Making
E
Examine relevant personal, societal, agency, client and professional values.
T
Think about what ethical standard of the NASW code of ethics applies, as well as relevant
laws and case decisions.
H
Hypothesize about possible consequences of different decisions.
I
Identify who will benefit and who will be harmed in view of social work’s commitment to
the most vulnerable.
C
Consult with supervisor and colleagues about the most ethical choice.
Table 2. Inclusive Model of Ethical Decision Making
Step One
Defining and Re-defining the Ethical Dilemma
Step Two
Mapping Legitimacy
Step Three
Gathering Information
Step Four
Alternative Approaches and Action
Step Five
Critical Analysis and Evaluation
Table 3. Ethical Principles and Values
The following broad ethical principles are based on social work’s core values of service, social
justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human relationships, integrity, and
competence. These principles set forth ideals to which all social workers should aspire.
Value: Service
Ethical Principle: Social workers’ primary goal is to help people in need and to address
social problems.
Social workers elevate service to others above self-interest. Social workers draw on their
knowledge, values, and skills to help people in need and to address social problems. Social
workers are encouraged to volunteer some portion of their professional skills with no
expectation of significant financial return (pro bono service).
Value: Social Justice
Ethical Principle: Social workers challenge social injustice.
Social workers pursue social change, particularly with and on behalf of vulnerable and
oppressed individuals and groups of people. Social workers’ social change efforts are focused
primarily on issues of poverty, unemployment, discrimination, and other forms of social
injustice. These activities seek to promote sensitivity to and knowledge about oppression and
cultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers strive to ensure access to needed information,
services, and resources; equality of opportunity; and meaningful participation in decision
making for all people.
Value: Dignity and Worth of the Person
Ethical Principle: Social workers respect the inherent dignity and worth of the person.
Social workers treat each person in a caring and respectful fashion, mindful of individual
differences and cultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers promote clients’ socially
responsible self-determination. Social workers seek to enhance clients’ capacity and opportunity
to change and to address their own needs. Social workers are cognizant of their dual
responsibility to clients and to the broader society. They seek to resolve conflicts between
clients’ interests and the broader society’s interests in a socially responsible manner consistent
with the values, ethical principles, and ethical standards of the profession.
Value: Importance of Human Relationships
Ethical Principle: Social workers recognize the central importance of human relationships.
Social workers understand that relationships between and among people are an important
vehicle for change. Social workers engage people as partners in the helping process. Social
workers seek to strengthen relationships among people in a purposeful effort to promote,
restore, maintain, and enhance the wellbeing of individuals, families, social groups,
organizations, and communities.
Value: Integrity
Ethical Principle: Social workers behave in a trustworthy manner.
Social workers are continually aware of the profession’s mission, values, ethical principles, and
ethical standards and practice in a manner consistent with them. Social workers act honestly
and responsibly and promote ethical practices on the part of the organizations with which they
are affiliated.
Value: Competence
Ethical Principle: Social workers practice within their areas of competence and develop and
enhance their professional expertise.
Social workers continually strive to increase their professional knowledge and skills and to apply
them in practice. Social workers should aspire to contribute to the knowledge base of the
profession.
Table 4. ETHIC Model: Checklist
E. Examine relevant personal, societal, agency, client and professional values.
 Assess your own personal values. Ask if decisions are based on personal rather than
professional values.
 Examine and take into account the client’s values.
 Examine relevant societal, agency, and professional values.
T. Think about what ethical standard of the NASW code of ethics applies, as well as relevant
laws and case decisions.
The ethical standards in the NASW Code of Ethics are divided into six sections: Social workers’
ethical responsibilities to clients, colleagues, practice settings, as professionals, to the
profession, and to the broader society.
 Examine the section(s) under which the dilemma falls under
 Be cognizant of relevant federal, state, and local laws that may affect the ethical
dilemmas they encounter. According to Congress (2000), while laws and social work
ethics usually coincide, there may be times when they conflict. The social worker needs
to be aware when a law or regulation may be unethical.
H. Hypothesize about possible consequences of different decisions.
 Think about different scenarios. List pros and cons of each. Hypothesize which
alternative would be preferred.
I. Identify who will benefit and who will be harmed in view of social work’s commitment to the
most vulnerable.
 When choosing between two bad alternatives, which is often the case, follow the
governing principle of “concern for the most vulnerable” (Congress, 2000, p. 12). Chose
the alternative that will “expand choice and opportunity for all persons ,with special
regard for vulnerable, disadvantaged, oppressed, and exploited persons and groups
(NASW, 1996, p. 27)
C. Consult with supervisor and colleagues about the most ethical choice.
 If available, consult with colleagues or your supervisor; they may offer helpful new
information or alternatives.
Table 5. Inclusive Model: Checklist
Step One: Defining the Ethical Dilemma
 Can I clearly define competing ethical principles in this situation? If so, what are they? If
not, do I need to consult with an appropriate other to clarify my thoughts? Are issues of
culture involved here? (consultation; cultural sensitivity)
 If I determine that this is an ethical dilemma, where am I placed within it? Is it my role
to make a decision, or should this situation be referred to someone with higher
authority? (accountability)
 Is this situation familiar to me or do I need new knowledge? Can I draw on past
experience or on what I have learnt from work in other contexts? (critical reflection)
Step Two: Mapping Legitimacy
 Who has legitimacy in this situation? Who is included and who is excluded? Are there
any cultural factors to take into account (e.g., extended family or kin in the case of
indigenous clients)? (cultural sensitivity)
 Is it appropriate to share this ethical dilemma with others? Is this an ethical dilemma
that I am facing alone, or are others also involved? Who should be talking to whom at
this stage? (consultation; accountability; critical reflection)
Step Three: Gathering Information
 What guidance is provided by professional codes of ethics, protocols, policies or
procedures, and are there any legal considerations? (accountability)
 Are there any conflicts between personal values, professional requirements and
organizational mandates, and are these conflicts likely to present problems for the
decision-maker or others? (critical reflection)
 Are there other resources that could shed light on this dilemma such as research,
literature or the experiences of others? (consultation, critical reflection)
 Who could be consulted at this stage for the acquisition of new knowledge, or for
clarification of positions taken by ethical codes, policies or law? (consultation)
 Is specific cultural knowledge required, and if so, who should be consulted for this?
(cultural sensitivity)
Step Four: Alternative Approaches and Action
 What are the available courses of action now that I have gathered knowledge and
information and considered the range of value positions? (accountability)
 On what basis will I make this decision and how will I justify my actions?
(accountability)
 Am I missing other alternatives, and how can I be sure that I have weighed up all the
options? Who can I talk to about this and can someone else play ‘devil’s advocate’ to help
me clarify my position? (consultation)
 Are any of these options culturally discriminatory or insensitive? (cultural sensitivity)
 How do I feel about the decision I have come to, and is there anything I need to do
differently? Can I live with this decision and can I justify it if called upon?
 How do I implement and document this decision? (critical reflection; accountability)
Step Five: Critical Analysis and Evaluation
 What have I learnt from this situation about the way I make decisions and have I
changed my behavior from previous decision-making patterns? (critical reflection)
 Do I feel confident that I acted in a culturally sensitive manner throughout the process or
were there any aspects of culture that I neglected to explore? (cultural sensitivity)