AP Psych (Entire Book Outline)
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Psychology Study of thought and behavior Chapter 1 Introduction and History of Psychology Cognition-Thinking You cannot observe thought Ex. Problem Solving Perceptions Imagination Creativity Learning Mental Images Behavior Any kind of observable action Parts of Psychology Emotions Feeling Personality Genetics Development 5 Goals of Psychology Observe a problem Describe a problem Explanation (Theory) Predictions about problem Control of Fix the problem Science of Psychology Natural Science: Nature Chemistry Social Science: People and how they interact Psychology must be empirical- Proven by fact Speculation is not empirical Theory Attempt to explain something Get stronger as they are tested Physics Alchemy Paradigm Commonly accepted theory and a way of looking at the world and doing things Aren’t necessarily right Paradigm Shift One paradigm is replaced by another Anomaly Exception to a paradigm The more anomaly the weaker the science Many in psychology because there are no guarantees Psychologists have to focus on being empirical “Pseudo”-Fake Horoscopes Phrenology Fortune Tellers Harmful to people and Psychology History of Psychology *earliest psychologists were philosophers Socrates- “The unexplained life is not worth living” Plato- “Know thyself” Introspection Aristotle- “Only beast or God can live alone” People need people Man is subject to natural law (Instincts) *Pain and Pleasure motivates us* Hippocrates- Mental illness meant something is wrong with the brain *During the middle ages mental illnesses were explained by claiming the devil possessed them* Scientific Revolution Descartes Method of skepticism Darwin Natural Selection (Evolution) 5 Fathers of Psychology William Wundt (Structuralist) German, Late 1800s First Modern Psychologist Made first psychology lab Started focusing on what awareness is made up of William James (Functionalist) First Major American Psychologist Wrote the first psychology book “Steam of Consciousness” Habit- something you do without awareness *repetition and success* Bear Story: scared because you ran, not running because you’re scared Instinct comes before awareness BF Skinner/ John Watson (Behaviorists) *Our behavior is motivated by rewards and punishments Don’t care about thought because it cannot be observed The Gestalts The way we think and our awareness is affected by our perceptions Sigmund Freud- Austrian Brought psychology mainstream Not very empirical but very interesting Interpretations of Dreams Sex Starts psychodynamic school- unconscious motivates us (impact our thoughts) 9 Current Psychological Views Biological View Focuses on thought and behavior being a result of biological functions Developmental View How people develop (what goes into development) from birth to death. Cognitive View Opposite of behaviorism thoughts affect behavior Psychodynamic View Dominant perspective in 40s and 50s: Unconscious affects thoughts and behavior Behavioral View Any kind of observable action that shows how people are Humanistic View Opposite of behaviorists: People are special and complex they are motivated to be happy, healthy and fulfilled Evolutionary View Believe thought and behavior has adapted throughout history Sociocultural View 70s, 80s, 90s Pure Nurture: Social Environment affects behavior Trait View Nature- Genetics Chapter 2 Research Methods Experiments when researcher gives a treatment to a participant researcher records how the treatment affects behavior Cause and Effect Treatment- whatever is added taken away or omitted in an experiment Not natural Tend to be simple Extraneous Variables *Operational Definition- when you scientifically explain all the variable in research Anatomy of Experiment Variables- things that can change in the experiment Independent Variables- treatment researcher can manipulate (cause) Dependent Variables- fact or changes in response to the independent (effect) The Perfect Experiment Extraneous Factors destroy experiments Controlled experiments cut down on extraneous factors One group gets treatment one group doesn’t Aside from treatment everything else must be the same between control group and experimental group Use larger groups to eliminate the effect of the freak factor Pick participants randomly (Volunteer Bias) Post Facto- people are chosen specifically Placebo Effect- people believe something will happen and it affects their behavior The Treatment vs. Placebo Effect Single Blind Test- experimental group and control group are unaware (don’t tell or lie) Double Blind Study- same as single except even the researcher doesn’t know who gets the treatment Eliminates Expectancy Bias from the researcher Ethics standards for proper and moral behavior *Major part of research Promotes: Scientific integrity- doing things correctly Human Welfare- safe, ease suffering No Laziness APA (American Psychological Association) Makes sure people are ethical Confidentiality- keep information about research and people private *Major ethics issue Do this for dignity and morals and it is self-serving Honesty is more likely if privacy is involved Significant danger is always reported Informed Consent-people know what’s going on and they give their permission *most cases need this for research Under 18 must be parental consented Deception- allowed to lie sometimes if you follow three rules When research is done the truth must be told Benefits of research must outweigh the lie Before the experiment you have to make a judgment call on whether or not the people would do it if they knew the truth Data Have to make it available Can’t omit data Can’t use shortcuts APS (American Psychological Society) Little brother to APA focuses on ethics also Institutional Review Board Makes sure all the research is there and it is ethical Statistics Data Empirical research leads to information Statistics Mathematical analysis of your data Frequency Distribution Chart that labels all of your data Histogram Bar graph helps visualize the data easier Descriptive Statistics—Describe the data collected Central Tendency—did everyone do about the same Average Advantages—easily done Disadvantages—anomalies change data Mode—Most shown up Advantage—easy to find Disadvantage—doesn’t work with diverse data Median—equally dividing the upper and lower scores Measures of Variability—accuracy Comparisons Checks honest averages if they represent the data well Range—Difference between highest and lowest score Helps with standard deviation Standard Deviation AP definition-- Shows the average difference between each score and the average Porcoro definition-- Shows how close the average is to each score Low Standard Deviation—scores are all close to each other High Standard Deviation—scores are all far apart Differential Statistics Stats used to judge whether your data is accurate or random Whether people are lying or not Compare two sets of data Significant Difference Used to judge whether or not data is reliable or by chance Take out anomalies and mistakes Psychology is an Experimental Science Research and evidence are its backbone Skepticism—people who question things stops mistakes improves research and thinking The more skeptical the better the science Scientific Method—Empirical Question (Problem) Hypothesis (Theory) Test It (Research) Analyze Results Draw Conclusions (Publish) Replication—when you do research over and over to confirm results Proves the story is not random Change environment Three Types of Research Surveys—ask people questions Good for thinking and behaving Advantages Quick Easy Cheap Involves lots of People Works well with Stats Disadvantages Inaccuracy Difficult to do correctly Reasons why surveys can be inaccurate Lies Please the Interviewer Population Poor Conducting Confidentiality Avoid Bias Poor Survey Picking the right Huge part of RESEARCH Picking the right Target group Samples-Small part of target group that responds Different type of Samples Volunteers are not good—Volunteer bias Random pick people by chance The larger the random population the better Stratified Samples—all the sub-groups of sample equal that of target population Confounding (extraneous) Factors—any factors that can manipulate your research (Things you didn’t see coming) Impossible to eliminate all of them Chapter 3 Biopsychology and Neuroscience Biopsychology (Biological Approach) Largest growing sector All thinking and behavior is based on biological functions Evolution Process over deep time (millions of years) where a species changes to adapt to its environment Psychologists believe all our thoughts and behaviors adapted over time Large Brains Fear Sleep Laughter (bonding) Darwin 1831- sailed on the Beagle- to the Galapagos Islands Wrote “Origin of Species” 1859 Natural Selections Strong Traits Survive Leading to Weak Traits Die Off Adaption Nature vs. Nurture Darwin=Nature Genetic Outline Essay: Story of Me Nucleus= Essay 23 Chromosomes= Paragraph DNA= Sentences Genes= Words Nucleotides (4 types) = Letters Down syndrome= 47 chromosomes Genotype Phenotype (Recipe) (Dinner) Genetic Code What it ends up looking like? Neuron Everything we do and think is controlled by 3 things Brain-Boss Central Nervous System- Communicators Endocrine- Communicators Hormones work fast How the Nervous System Communicates It is made up of hundreds o small units called neurons Neurons (Nerve Cells) Most found in the brain They receive and send information Control thought, senses, perception, movement, and the automatics i.e. heartbeat 3 types of neurons Sensory (Afferent) Carry information pain-touch Motor (Efferent) Movementsvoluntary or involuntary works with one Interneural They send and receive information in the spine maybe base of brain Anatomy of Neuron Dendrite (Branch-like) Neuroreceptors that catch what is sent out Change the more they are used the grow the less they are used they shrink Soma (Cell Body) Decides whether or not to fire Excitatory Fire InhibitoryDoesn’t fire Axon Longest part of the neuron Covered by the Myelin Sheath-Glial- Insulation Covers the axon it protects and conserves energy from spreading Axon Terminal Button- bottom part Chemicals called neurotransmitters – when they are shocked they are released from their synaptic vessels They float over a synapse tot eh next dendrite Neuron Facts When it fires its electric followed by chemical reaction Electricity works on an ionic change—first negative then positive Neurons resting (potential) waiting to fire Action Potential- cell is firing All or None no half fire when cell body fires it goes all the way Synaptic Transmission- when the chemical sacks are hit by an ionic charge and the neurotransmitters float Reuptake- process when any unused chemicals are sent back to the axon Parkinson’s disease are people with reuptake issues Poisons- compromise neurotransmitters in their path (snake bites) Plasticity- neurons change and adapt overtime comes through repetition and experience Neurochains will grow to be more efficient Learning causes plasticity Muscle memory causes plasticity When people have strokes or loss of limbs the brain changes shape Nervous System Central Nervous System Brain-many neurons Spinal Cord- back of the brain to the lower back Thick column of interneuron Protected by spine bones Peripheral Nervous System Afferent (Sensory) Efferent (Motor) Sends and receives messages from and to the brain Found throughout the body: Exception Brain and Spinal Cord Somatic Controls senses Voluntary movement Autonomic- automatic In charge of vital functions Awareness is not needed Emotions generally fall here In charge of fight or flight Sympathetic Deals with an emergency Parasympathetic Calms after crisis (relaxation) Both are very quick short time Teeter totter= Balance Brain The brain is a complex team There is no such thing as a magic bullet. Brain Stem- Hind Brain Every being has this Vital Functions Some Instincts Connects to the spinal cord Size of babies arm to fist Medulla Controls important body functions Breathing Heart Rate Blood Pressure Works with the autonomic nervous system Pons Controls sleep alertness and attentions and some reflexes RAS (Reticulating Activating System) Found in the back side of the brain stem Thin film Waking you up and keeping you awake Drugs and alcohol affects this Cerebellum (Little brain) Size of the fist or a baseball Controls balance, coordination, timing, judging sounds Thalamus Top of the brain stem Train station for all your senses except smell Senses go there and then everywhere else Movements also get shot through there Protected by the rest of the brain Limbic System Converting memory Controls all learning except advanced instincts Sex Drive Endocrine System Emotions donut Majority of all Shaped like a Hypothalamus Thin Membrane Hard to find Manages your endocrine Hunger Pleasure center of the brain Metabolism (Thyroid) Body Temperature Regulates Sex Drive Nurture Hippocampus Stores and retrieves memory Amygdala End of the hippocampus Fear Aggression Very important for survival Cerebrum Mushy stuff Protects brain stuff Gives brain shape holds neurons insulates Cerebral Cortex Thin shell over the cerebrum Holds cerebrum in place Thought takes place Movement Language Memory is stored Divided in hemispheres—Four lobes/hemispheres 8 in all Cerebral Cortex Made into two hemispheres Two hemispheres are connected by the Corpus Callosum: not only connects but it is a bridge of connection Left Hemisphere Right side of body Right Hemisphere Left side of body Each hemisphere has 4 lobes Frontal Lobe Thinking Problem Solving All Movement Personality Smell Talking Pulling memories Attention Pain Awareness Temporal Lobe Sounds go through the thalamus then here Frontal lobe Sound Memory Works with Known as auditory cortex Occipital Lobe Visual cortex Visual memories Works with Frontal Lobe Sensory Cortex Sense of Touch Muscle Memory Tells you distances Works with lobes and cerebellum Parietal Lobe Sense of Taste Language Most language functions occur in the left hemisphere Wernicke’s Area Found in the Temporal Lobe Brocca’s Area Found in the lower part of the frontal lobe Develops slower than the Wernicke’s Area Left vs. Right Hemisphere Left Language Problem Solving Logic Creativity Spatial Ability Music Ability Positive Emotions Right Imagination Negative Emotions Tone of Voice Recognition Memory Split Brain Operations Corpus Callosum is cut and the communication working together is stopped Prevents seizures from spreading through the whole brain Chapter 4 Sensation and Perception Sensation Sensory Psychology How your brain senses all things Sensation Neurological process where the information is sent to your brain from the outside world Perception How your brain interprets information from the outside world Things that affect your perception Environment Encounters Mood Gender Your brain never comes in contact with the outside world The world is filtered by your senses and perception Transduction The process where a stimulus of the outside world is changed into a neural message Sensory receptors change a touch into a neural message Sensory Path Stimulus Sensory Receptors Peripheral NS Central NS Thalamus Brain Lobe Stimulus dies at the sensory receptors Sensory Adaption Ability to sense the outside world changes (dynamic) The job of a sensory receptor is not only to recognize the outside world but notice when it changes Most of the outside world we ignore because we can’t take in all of it Made to notice changes not stagnant things Noticing the change makes it easier to survive Senses start to ignore things that don’t change—Sensory Adaption OUR SENSORY DETECTORS ARE GEARED FOR CHANGE Pain is hard to get used to-it never goes away Thresholds The limitations of your sensation Absolute Thresholds- the slightest amount of a stimulus can detect Above the threshold—sensed Below the threshold—can’t sense Difference Thresholds JND (Just Noticeable Difference) The smallest difference that you can detect between two items Thresholds can change over time Setting Physical Condition Motivation Expectations all affect threshold Psychophysics Branch of physics and psychologists that focuses on thresholds Vision Eyes work like a camera it’s all about light and light waves Cornea The clear out lens of the eye Pupil Shapes the eye Sharpens Image A black opening in the eye Pupils adjust to how much light there is pupils get bigger when you’re in danger 45 minutes to completely adjust to dark environment Iris The colored part Muscle that opens and closes pupil Lens Distance and dimension Retina Transduction occurs Photoreceptors-neurons Rods- light and darkness Cones-color Acknowledge-red blue and green Information goes from the retina to the optic nerve Blind Spots The part where the optic nerve covers the retina—no photoreceptors there Can’t see anything that falls there The brain and the other eye fills the blind spots so you never notice Fovea Part of the retina that is the sharpest Visual Acuity Measurement to see how sharp your eye is Color Blindness Issues with cones Complete color blindness is rare Red is most common The key to vision is light and waves Light waves are measured in amplitude Color is also known as hue Color does not exist outside of your retina Every color gives off wavelengths Intensity of them creates colors Visual Spectrum—wavelengths producing color Color Theory Trichromatic- you can only see three colors—Red Blue and Green Opponent Process Theory Every time you see a color the opposite is being suppressed Hearing Sounds travels through the air in waves – Vibrations cause these waves If there is no air there is no sound All sounds have a pitch and loudness Pitch—number of sound waves per second (Frequency) measured in Hertz More waves the higher the pitch Less waves the lower the pitch Women have shorter vocal chords so they have higher pitched voices Limits Lowest 20Hz Highest 2000mHz Loudness—Volume—Amplitude Does not test waves frequency measures in decibels Threshold for decibels 0-5 decibels-Lowest Anything over 100 Leads to hearing issues Timbre-Tone Complexity of a sound more than pitch and volume—recognition Parts of your ear Outer Ear—Two Main Parts Ear Canal Full of wax and pressurized—keeps water and dirt out Ear Drums—Tympanic Membrane Vibrates when sound hits it thin film if damaged it can heal Middle Ear—1 job amplify sound Hammer Anvil Stirrup Inner Ear Cochlea Looks like a snail Filled with liquid Liquid turns to sound waves to neural messages (transduction) Basilar Membrane Hairs on it—cilia stimulate nerve cells Auditory Nerve Connection to the brain Eustation Tube Part of your sinuses Pressurization Deafness Born that way (Birth Defects) Injury (Hearing Damage) (Loud Noise) Heredity (Genetics) Diseases (Cripple Ability to Hear) Old Age (Most Popular) Conductive Deafness—middle ear is compromised old people (loud noises rare) Hearing aid-amplifies noises Sensory Neural Deafness Damage inner ear Almost impossible to fix Developing artificial but far away Other Senses 5 ways all of our Senses are the SAME Information from the outside world Transduction Notice Change All got to the Brain Information gets blocked when we get used to things Smell AKA Olfaction Connected to the Mouth Involves chemicals not waves Olfactory Bulb connects to the limbic system Smell is instinctive (Doesn’t go to the thalamus) Keeps us away from danger Animals use smell to ID Pheromones Chemicals animals give off to attract a mate Since the Frontal lobe has developed we don’t need smell as much Taste-Gustation Taste like smell uses chemicals Smell and taste work together to make flavor Only taste 5 things Sweet Salt Bitter Savory Sour Some people taste better than others Super Taster—notice bitter things better Nontaster—notice sweeter things Transduction occurs in the tastes buds—Papillae Body Senses Vestibular Sense In the ears Buds-Semicircular Canal Balance Gravity Movement Kinesthetics All over joints and muscles Brain creates a body map Touch Timing Judgment Transduction occurs in your skin Exposed Sensitive Resilient Tough Bottom of feet knees and elbows are not as sensitive 3 things you can feel when you touch’ Texture Temperature Pressure- NOT PAIN Goes to the parietal lobe Pain is linked with touch but is very different Runs along the same neural pathways Reason for confusion “Man cannot exist without the luxury of pain.” Pain is a warning system keeping you away from trouble and danger How pain works All pain travels along the spinal cord to an area in the brain system PAG (Peri-Aqueductal Gate) Gate for pain to go through to the thalamus then the frontal lobe Gate Theory The belief that your brain can only handle a limited amount of pain at once If you over load your sense you can block out major pain Slow Fibers—Major Pain Fast Fibers—Minor Pain Fill with fast fibers to block out the slow fibers Histamines Brain sends these when and where an injury occurs Fire enflame swell—Irritates it so you get off while it heals Certain medicines used to stop this Ice Novocain stops or numbs Goes between dendrites and axon terminals Severe Pain Body cannot handle severe pain for a prolonged amount of time After a while body will try to ignore and use all capacity to get through but the pain will still be there Chapter 5 States of Consciousness “Your mind works on many levels.” Some stuff you’re aware of. Some stuff you are not aware of. Some stuff you’ll never be aware of” Consciousness- Awareness Anytime you think of something, recall a memory, pay attention/notice something, emotion is registered this is what separates us from animals (we are more aware than they are) Non-Conscious-things that don’t need awareness (functions of the mind, habits, walking, breathing, heartbeat, instincts, storing of memories, hunger, sex drive) 1. Pre-Conscious- info or functions that are not conscious but have the potential to be (Chose to make them conscious or the environment can stir them) a. EX: breathing, memories(remember when…), emotions, instinctual drives, hunger, sex drive 2. Unconscious- things that will never be and don’t need to be made aware of a. EX:vital body functions, conformity, instincts, sweating, digestion How awareness works… Non-consciousness is the majority of mental functioning Always on Very good at multitasking Consciousness can only focus on one thing at a time Can do many things but only 1 at a time; serial Fun Facts: Awareness (Spotlight) 1. It’s a good thing that consciousness works like a spotlight we restrict our attention to stuff that matters notice change in things that are interesting block out stuff that doesn’t matter 2. Provides you with mental meeting place where binding occurs Senses, perception, memory, motivation, emotions 3. Blank Canvas can use for thoughts, creativity, play with sense and thought Two Theories on Awareness 1. Iceberg Theory- (Sigmund Freud) <- Conscious <-Unconscious 2. Stream of Consciousness- (William James) Your awareness flows like a river Always changing River has many things in it (senses, perception, memories, -> like big rocks) Big Rocks- major things (events, missing limbs) Drought- awareness slows down Flood- awareness hyped (high anxiety, fights) Stuff under the water we don’t notice- (habits etc.) Drying up-coma & death Pollution-Alzheimer’s, Dementia, bad memory, drugs Cognitive Neural Science- Hip Field in Psych at the moment ( Neurology, Biology, Cognitive Psych and focus on different levels of awareness) Altered State of Consciousness- hen your awareness is compromised or distorted (sleeping, dreams, drugs hypnosis) Daydreaming-altered state of awareness Where people lose focus on their environments and drift off into thought. Environment blocked out. It’s not sleep. Everyone does it. Great way to pass time. Reduces Stress, good for evaluating, setting goals, making plans, can lead to obsession, focus on negative worries or feelings, escapism (ignore problems) Not as vivid or realistic as nighttime dreams Sleeping- 1/3 of our lives spent sleeping, 3 Theories on Sleep 1. Dualistic Approach- sleep recharges mind & body, 2. Evolutionary Theory-Our brains are geared to sleep at night (sensory things on eyes when its dark) 3. Sleep & Dreams allow brain to rewire itself after a day of operation; defrag- resorts; files memories. (Taking out the mental Trash) Circadian rhythms- (a.k.a. Biological Clock) Mental processes that govern and dictate timing in our body ;prewired; evolved over time; (found in hypothalamus; superchaismaticnucleus) o EX: sleeping, puberty, blood pressure, heart rate(timing itself), desire to procreate, hunger, bowel movements, o Eyes send info to the hypothalamus (light &darkness) helps with timing Sleep Wake Cycle- about every 25 hours man needs about 6-9 hours of sleep Baby’s need 15-17 hours 2-3 year old 12-14 hours 3-9 year old 10-12 hours 9-49 year olds 6-9 hours -Genetics and environment play role in your biological cycle -Oversleeping does more damage than under sleeping Jet lag- Sleep Deprivation (an affect from not getting enough sleep) You cannot make up sleep the next day Prolonged Sleep Deprivation will cause physical and mental issues Easier to adjust to longer day than a shorter day (26 hour day is better than 23 hour day) Stages of Sleep- (rapid Eye Movement- Dreaming) NREM- Not dream sleeping REM- Dreaming Awake REM 1 (Dream 1) 1 REM (Dream 2) REM (Dream 3) 2 1 3 4 4 4 Asleep Stage 1: lightest stage; senses still going easy to wake you up 1 REM (Dream 4) 1 1 2 2 Stage 2: sleep gets deeper; senses are almost off, harder to wake Stage 3: deep sleep starts senses are gone, hard to wake up people Stage 4: deepest sleep, hard to wake people up, when people get up they are disoriented REM Rebound-when you don’t get enough dreams one night and your body makes up for it the next day with many dreams 3 Theories on Dreams 1. Freud’s Theory- your dreams mean something (subconscious/unconscious) The Interpretation of Dreams Dream analysis Manifest Content- storyline Latent Content- what dreams mean/stand for 2. Housekeeping of Memory- when you sleep your brain will organize your memories as a result you get dreams 3. Biopsychological Theory-Neural Misfire Theory-Activation Synthesis Theory- Brainstem will have neurons misfire and as a result images are created in the frontal lobe and the brain makes a story—confabulation Sleep Problems 1. Insomnia-every night have difficulty sleeping (Most Common) o Problem falling asleep o Problem staying asleep* (Most Common) 2. Night Terrors- Occurs in stages 3 and 4 (Not dreams)- flail body around o Most common with kids o Sleep paralysis worn off 3. Sleepwalking- mind is not fully awake but body is o Most common with kids o Sleep paralysis worn off 4. Sleep Apnea- When people have trouble breathing when they sleep (2nd most Common) o People stop breathing, body wake up corrects it and goes back to sleep o Strong correlation between obesity and Sleep Apnea 5. Narcolepsy- (Rare) sleep disorder where people can easily fall asleep at weirs times Hypnosis-altered state of Consciousness where people block out their environment and become highly suggestible; put their guard down Disclaimers: not magic, doesn’t work for everyone, If you don’t believe in it it’s not going to work (placebo affect) 1stDone in Germany in the late 1700’s with magnets People that are hypnotized are baited into a meditated trance and become suggestible; they can’t make you do something you wouldn’t normally do Cool Effects- can help you recover memories an can help block out pain , mild anesthetic Post Hypnotic Suggestions- when you hypnotize someone and make a suggestion that will affect them afterwards Possible Theories about Hypnosis – 1. 2. 3. 4. Placebo affect Hypnosis is really meditation Conformity(want to fit in and we are expected to be hypnotized so will be) Hidden Observer Theory-(Disassociation) When you get hypnotized you lose your ability to be the 1st person and view yourself from outside of the body 5. Gate Theory- Belief that somewhere in your mind when your hypnotized a switch is flipped and you become more motivated/suggestible Meditation- altered state of consciousness where people block out the outside world and focus; reach a point of extreme concentration, very euphoric (feels very good) Need quiet (concentration, breathing techniques, stretching) Meditation lowers stress; in extreme cases vital body functions can be controlled Why does it happen? Brain is given a break from blocking out sensory info so it can do other things Sensory Deprivation- altered state of consciousness; shut down senses and get a different awareness Float tanks, salt water you can float, warm water so you can’t feel, dark and sound proof Harvard Prison (Solitary Confinement) - kind of in a meditative state feels good at first but after a while you get irritable, irrational, hallucinate and maybe bug out because your brain has a job to do Psychoactive Drug States Psychoactive drugs- any substance that affects the way you think and behave Hallucinogens- alters perceptions & senses and produces disassociation where your separated from yourself Most include mescaline, psilocybin, LSD, PCP o Allow relaxation Most hallucinogens are at a specific receptor sites for the neurotransmitter serotonin PCP- synthetic drug-produces strange dissociative reaction in which the user feels disembodied Cannabis- herb plant, active ingredient- THC- mild mushrooms marijuana Opiates- made from onion poppy-found in Middle East very addictive because pain is bad Blocks pain; center fissure gets blocked Opium- morphine, heroin Codeine- mental function will not be compromised Morphine- pain relieving, suppresses physical sensation and response to stimulation Methadone- synthetic opiate- (previously addicted to heroin) give you methadone instead of heroin, its less addictive and can slowly take you off of heroin; suppresses all worries and awareness of bodily needs Depressants- slow mental & physical activity of the body by way of the central nervous system Barbiturates- sedation (sleeping pills) Benzodiazepines-antianxiety drugs Alcohol- social stimulant Stimulants- speed up central nervous system, increase concentration, & give pleasure and energy ADHD need stimulants Weight loss and diet pills Cocaine- intense pleasurable sensations, increased elf confidence, greater energy and awareness, euphoric Nicotine- highly addictive, can cause cancer and emphysema and heart disease Caffeine- reward brain pathway into responding as if beneficial Speed, ecstasy, crack-poor, cocaine-rich, Drug Addiction- when a person needs a substance to function 2 Types of addictions 1. Physical- your body becomes dependent a. Alcohol, caffeine 2. Mentala. Gambling, sex, shopping, video games, social Eating Disorders- limbic system is also is also activated by addictions Addictions come in threes Addiction personality can come from heredity or environment Addictive Personality- some are more likely to be addicted than others Tolerance- more a substance needed to produce same results Withdrawal-when additive substance are taken away there are side affects Opium withdrawal is bad Alcohol is worse can kill you Relapse- when you stop taking it for awhile and the urges bring you back to it • Effects much harsher than prior experiences with the drug or substance Detox- slowly weaned off a physically addictive Alcohol detox –most popular Treatment- Psychologist and doctors view addictions as a disease NOT A WEAKNESS Treatment is geared in this direction 2 types of Treatment for Addictions 1. Outpatient- go to place & leave 2. Inpatient- have to stay at facility Group (Talk Therapy) Therapy- psychologist & others talk 1 on 1- counseling sessions Behavioral Therapy-change behaviors that lead you to that Cognitive Therapy- change the way you view drugs and alcohol AA-Alcoholics anonymous- social support group, 12 steps, social addiction, new social structure, newbff mentor Grey Area what is addiction? Can you recover? Chapter 6: Learning Learning- is when experience leads to change in the way we think and behave (lasting change) Prewired to learn (nature) Chapter Theme: Behaviorists learners vs. Cognitive Learners Conflict don’t get along Learning vs. Instinct (Nature: limbic system) I-Brain doesn’t change (limbic system) L- Nurture can be Behavioral or Cognitive L- Brain Changes (Plasticity) L- Allows us to be flexible People are the ultimate learners; this is what separates us as man. As man has evolved we have become more learning based Types of Learning Simple Types: 1) Habituation – when an organism learns to ignore things that are unimportant or safe. Allows you to get used to your environment. Ex. New Yorkers don’t hear traffic anymore. It is learning but it’s very instinct 2) Mere Exposure- our preference for the familiar; we learn what’s familiar.Evolutionary Perspective- if it didn’t kill us the 1st time it won’t kill us now. Ex sit by someone familiar to you 3) Classic Conditioning- when you learn to associate things together 4) Operant Conditioning- (Behavioralism) 5) Latent Learning 6) Shaping 7) Complex Learning –(slightly harder=more awareness) 1) Modeling 2) Insight (future topics) 3) Conceptional Learning Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning- we learn through rewards and punishment; more conscious of it Operants also called reinforcements/ consequences Observable actions 1st King John Watson – (1930’s almost the biggest in the US) ladies’man , mistresses, makes $ through operant and conditioning 2nd King B. F. Skinner- brings operant conditioning to mainstream; Skinner box/operant chambers (box with rat and buttons, food and punishment) air crib, Law of effect- when we learn something it gets stamped into our brains (rewired) stuff that works for us we will keep. This is why it’s so importantto make sure kids are on time when they’re younger (stages) Primary Reinforcers- essential biological needs or biological dangers (food, warmth) Secondary Reinforcers-things that lead to biological need or biological danger ($) OPPERANT CONDICTIONING IS HAPPENING ALL THE TIME SOMETIMES ON PURPOSE SOMETIMES ON ACCIDENT 3 Types of Operant Conditioning 1. Negative- taking away something you don’t like (unpleasant) 2. Positive- happy reinforcement (when something pleasant is added) to encourage behavior 3. Punishment- when something unpleasant is added to encourage behavior (positive punishment) when something you like is taken away (Omission-negative punishment) (Positive) If you clean up quickly we can watch a movie If you clean my room I’ll give you 20$ (Negative) If you finish this drill quickly you don’t have to run laps If you clean the kitchen & make dinner you don’t have to do the bathroom (Punish) If you forget something you’ll get your phone taken away If you don’t pay the pills you’ll lose your cable/electric If you don’t make enough money you can’t afford your house(foreclosure) Rules for reinforcement Be clear to people Keep reinforcement to singular task 1 reward or punishment per event Make sure you know what pleasant and unpleasant are Be consistent Watch your reinforcement schedule Punishment 3 Reasons Why Punishment Rules 1. It’s easy (retroactive-happens after the fact) 2. Very quick (very effective) 3. Eels good (revenge factor, not ethical) Why Punishment is bad: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Wears off quickly (especially if the threat is gone) Punishment will cause a victim to fight or flee the reinforcement Bad examples are set Punishment is unpleasant When punished sometimes the victim can be resentful Positive and Negative reinforcement encourage good behavior; punishment suppresses bad behavior The rules of Punishment 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Punishment fitsthe crime Explain why the victim was punished 10 years later will the kid agree with the punishment? Swift and quick about it (over and done with) Must be consistent Focus on the behavior not the person One behavior at a time Go with omissive rather than positive 4-8 from the book Reinforcement Schedules *Timing & Amount of reinforcement is important Should they be reinforced every time? Continuous Every time Immediately 1) Breathing 2) Gum ball machines 3) Hot stoves Partial (Intermittent) A Ratio (Actions) (Action amount) 1) but two get 1 free 2) 10$ for every 2 papers u write 3) Every 3 casts I catch a fish Fixed Set: Every Friday spelling test Interval (Timing) 1) Friday is a spelling test 2) Every spring we have PSSA”s Variable Random: Pop quiz Fishing you never know how many casts it’ll take to catch a fish Shaping- when you use operant conditioning in small steps to teach a complex skill that would be difficult to learn (tying shows, swimming, riding a bike) Children under 7 MR (Mentally Retarded/Challenged) Animals Complex Learning- (Cognitive Learning Styles) 1) Insight 2) Observational Learning 3) Latent (Cognitive but simple) Insight- (Wolfgang Kohler) German psychologist from WWI, became as famous as Gestalt, working with chimps; most famous monkey- Sultan; combine and recognize their previous perceptions to learn new knowledge; past experience to create something new (Monkey piles boxes to reach fruit) Latent/Cognitive Maps- (blindfold & room) Edward Tollman- worked with rats (rat &maze guy) proves that people and animals will learn things without reinforcement 1) When in the maze rats will quickly find the easiest courses to find food 2) When you flood a maze rats can still swim to where they think the food is 3) Put rat in maze with no food and let him chill out for 10 minutes once you put the food in there they will quickly get to it much quicker than rats that were never in there Premack Principle- (Operant) (Positive reinforcement)-When you use a favorable activity to get someone to do something less favorable Ex: if you eat the veggies you can have ice cream Law of effect- learn something and its gets stamped in your head (don’t probably need it anymore) Problem with cognitive learning- not observable/ empirical very hard to observe How does latent learning benefit organisms? Information we may need during an emergency Latent learning –learning that is stored unconsciously and hidden until needed (hippocampus) Observational Learning- (Modeling) Albert Bandura- god of observational learning (gets people mad) (learn by watching/hearing/teaching/experience) Cognitive, hard to get proof Bandura did Main way we learn 1. Observational learning (copy something do it later) 2. Observational Imitation(just copy for the moment –follow the leader blindly following 3. Dishibition- when you see something done that you think is too difficult, embarrassing , scary, or wrong done and then you are able to do it (Bubba jumps of suicide cliff) 4. Social Learning Theory- where we learn by watching others get rewarded or punished (don’t want to go to jail after hearing and seeing about it )(media) 4 factors that are going to help you learn better 1. 2. 3. 4. Practice-(Repetition) (strengthen dendrite/neural connections) Feedback- info that tells you if you’re doing right or wrong Experience-(Transfer) can sometimes help (pos) you or hurt (neg) you (prior knowledge) Learning Strategies- have nothing to do with intelligence or nature. They are nurtured Good Learning Strategies= success= High self-esteem= “success breeds success” Bad learning strategies=failures=low self-esteem “failure is cancerous” Learned helplessness/laziness- when people fail a lot of (or) struggle they will often give up; gives you control (Defense Mechanism) 1. 2. 3. 4. Internality- when you think something’s wrong with you Stability- when you think your only bad at a few things Globality- when you think your bad at everything Long term potential- neurological biology of learning dendrites grow tighter when you learn Too difficult Chapter 7: Cognition What’s Memory? Memory, Thinking, & Language all work together (key blocks of cognition) Memory- information processing system that a being uses to encode store & retrieve data Encoding Storing And pulled to the frontal cortex When it comes to learning, memory is very important for both simple and complex learning (Conscious & Unconscious) How memory systems work? 1. Encoding (all memory must go through this) when sensory information that is acknowledged/perceived is turned into a memory file Neural Messages are not stored as is changed into a memory code. During encoding your brain narrows the senses down and important features get tagged for encoding Most encoding is unconscious/ no effort Some things require conscious effort Elaboration- take new info and link it with preexisting memory during encoding process This’ll help memories stick longer (Personalize/ internalize) 2. Storage(put in cerebral cortex) stored in cortex Limbic system stores encoded memories (wheelbarrow dumps memories; carries them) 3. Retrieval when limbic system pulls a memory from the cortex Eidetic Imagery/Memory- (photographic memory) 5% of children have this; remember everything instantly (when it comes to language all children have it at age 3 or 4 ends around 7) 1. What do we remember? (info, skills, senses) 2. Lengthsand inherent process f memory 3. Strengthen your memory 4. Why does it fail us 3 Sequential stages of memory 1. Sensory Memory 2. Short Term (Working Memory) 3. Long Term Memory Stimulus SensorySensory Storage3 Long Term Working Fade Retrieval2 Sensory Memory- (1st stage) doesn’t last long; 1st stage, take all of your senses in and narrow “Through it all must pass” Step right before acknowledge Completely unconscious Last 1-7 seconds dies or get acknowledge Working Memory-(2nd stage) whenever something is acknowledged this is where it goes Home of consciousness/awareness. Whenever you think of something Long Term Memory- (3rd stage) encoded memories sent here. Long Term Memory is like spider webs it keeps going; the problem is retrieval Sensory Memory Task: Narrows down all the senses (unconscious) 3 Ways We Narrow Down 1. Selective Attention- ability to focus on important things (More aware; black out non-important) 2. Feature Extraction-notice main features of an object 3. Habituation- ignoring the non-important (learn to what ignore) Photographic Always running like a video camera Doesn’t last long (1-7 seconds) 5 Sensory Registers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Iconic-visions Echo- Sounds Tactile- Touch Olfactory- Smell Gustatory-Taste Transduction- big part sensory memories step between transduction and perception. Involved sensory organs neural pathways; thalamus Working Memory Remember it’ s a spotlight; doesn’t multitask Anything in your working memory will die if a effort is not made to store it in the long term Home of encoding/acknowledgment/creativity/perceptions Where you play with information about yourself Things live for about 20 seconds here unless an effort is made to keep it Once its acknowledged again the clock will reset. Can only store 7things Sometimes not in control of 7 things Fun Facts of Working Memory Chunking-way to improve memory; When you group information all together (max space Magic 7) Syllables, songs, rhythms & rhymes Maintenance Rehearsal- (repetition) repeat stuff to keep it refreshed in your memory (breathing room to get it to long term Elaborate Rehearsal-when new information is actively tied into information in long term memory (Internalizing information; best way to map out memory) Used when you make personal examples out of new information Phonological Loop-Sound part of working memory how we encode things acoustically Sketchpad- (Blank Slate) where visual images go Levels of processing Theory- the more connections you make with new information nd stuff from your long term memory. The more likely this new information will stay with you Working memory found in your frontal lobe but it works directly with your limbic system (long term) and sensory pathways 9Sensory Memory) Long Term Memory All of your stored memories go here When retrieved goes to working memory Lives forever but access isn’t always there It is limitless (no end)) Stored I spider web files Filed very efficiently unless you mess it up Unlimited room Found all over cortex (Grey Matter) Hippocampus (in limbic system )- job is to store & retrieve things from long term memory Consolidation- storing/encoding memory to long term Long Term potential- (neurons & dendrites throwing plasticity together)- The stronger the neural connections to old memory the easier it is for the hippocampus to do its job Access! What we remember! 1. Procedural- how (skills, behaviors, Operant Conditioning, Classic Conditioning) the more you do these skills the less awareness is needed to retrieve them 2. Declarative- what Episodic- episodes or events (things that happened) Semantic- general knowledge (language, faces, colors, math, directions) Declarative Memory- tougher to retrieve than procedural because you use skills more. Skills are an essence of survival Semantic Memory- you never remember where they came from. It’s not important when you remembered/learned it Retrieving Memories! Whenever you encode something (Make a memory file) and store it the key to retrieval is meaning When it comes to retrieval there are two factors 1. Speed 2. Accuracy Implicit Vs.1 Memories that are stored unconsciously without effort EX: backgrounds of building colors, muscle memory, minor and major details2 Explicit Memories that take a conscious effort to store and retrieve EX: schoolwork1 Retrieval Cues Whenever we retrieve a memory a cue is needed to pull them from storage Retrieval cues are typically some sort of stimulus that will pull from your memory All your senses can lead to retrieval of memory The better the cue the faster the retrieval Retrieval Fun Facts Alertness, stress, drugs, mood, environment, can all affect the retrieval of memory Priming, Elaborate Rehearsal, Different Rehearsal styles can affect retrieval of memory The Encoding Specificity Principle- the closer your retrieval cue is to the way a memory was originally stored the easier it is to retrieve Context Dependent Memory- dependent upon environment to retrieve it State/Mood Dependent Memory- mood to retrieve it Tip of the Tongue Theory- cant retrieve a memory you’ve encoded, occurs because memory of a file was encoded/filed wrong Priming- technique where implicit memories are cued and retrieved by using a hidden/unconscious cue Miscellaneous Cues When we encode information the files are never exact Recall (Working Memory) Ability to recreate a memory in your head2 VS.2 Recognize (Working Memory) Realize your familiar with something3 7 Sins of Memory Most of our memory issues are byproducts of an efficiently evolutionized memory 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Transience Absent mindedness Interference (Blocking) Misattribution Suggestibility Bias Persistence 1) Transience- #1 reason we have memory issues; When you can’t access memories anymore; Memories fade over time. “use it or lose it” Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve- when it comes to forgetting stuff you forget very quickly then it slows over time (Non-important information) Procedural lasts longer 2) Absent Mindedness- this occurs when we are distracted when something is being encoded (Forgotten Anniversaries, car keys) 3) Interference- (Blocking) when memories block the retrieval of other memories. Proactive- when an old memory blocks a new one from being formed (new gf old gf name) Retroactive- when your new memories replace old ones (new year but you still write the old one) 4) Misattribution- Memory mistake when you retrieve a memory but it has the wrong information associated with it Occurs because memory files aren’t perfect Confabulation- when your mind will make up a story to fill in missing information (it’s like a complete story) 5) Suggestibility- when suggestions or context clues are given & this could negatively affect memory. Called getting your memory up (How ugly was that guy you dated? You’ll make him up uglier in your head) 6) Bias- when we distort our memories with expectations, hopes, and beliefs, there’s general (expectancy bias) (old people expect young people to be bad) self-consistency bias- when people assume things stay the same all the time 7) Persistence-unwanted memories cannot be blocked out (bad memories/events) Why do we need these sins? Good for you; better machine Transience/Interference- helps your brain work more efficiently, needless information is lost in the name of efficiency Absent Mindedness- by product of a shifting spotlight (attention goes to more important stuff like forgetting where you left your keys because you see a guy with a knife) Suggestibility, Misattribution, Bias- we don’t remember details we remember an overview- more important/efficient Persistence- memories that we can’t lose are normally important (should never forget when someone stabbed you) How to help out your memory Personalize it (elaborate rehearsal) method of loci- use memory & associate it with items in a room to help recall Look for patterns Use mnemonics (acronyms) Language Language- any form of communication Syntax- (Inversion) word order (Yoda) Grammar- rules of a language Pronunciation-how you speak/say things Prosody-speed meter, rhythm of language Volume-how loud Tone- attitude Spelling-goes with Pronunciation Is language Nature (Instinctive) or Nurture (Learned) ? Wired to learn a language Programmed (brain) Nativist Theory- (Chomsky) we were born with an innate propensity (wiring) to develop a language Doesn’t matter which one Believe basic grammar & syntax are programmed Believed in LAD (Language Acquisition Device- region in the brain where language is developed Idea of critical period- belief that there is a critical time to develop a language from 2-12 years old if you don’t take advantage of it you’ll never learn a language Most agree 12 is the cut off it doesn’t matter what language as long as you learn one Social Interaction Theory- both nature and example is needed to develop a language Biology of language 3 lobes Temporal- hear Occipital-speak Parietal- pronunciation Frontal-more understanding Wernicke’s Area- helps you understand Broca’s Area- say it (helps) Timeliness for Learning a Language Everyone developes at a different pace Little correlation between intelligence and pace of language Newborns- crying 1-2 Months- cueing (simple sound/lip movement) 2-3 Months- Babbling (jargon) (ba-da-da-da) (make noises) 1 year old- 10-50 words (tied to wants and results) 2 year olds- over 50 words (crude sentences) 3 year olds- syntax, volume, tone, beginning of conversation 4 year olds- instant meaning of words, leap (words) 5 year olds- master average grammar, understand inflections(plurals etc.) understand social norms of communication(how loud, volume) Morphemes- unit of language (something that could be understood) EX: dog=1 dogs=2 the cat=2 the cats=3 Overregulation- when kids apply the rules of grammar incorrectly Thinking/Cognition Thinking- processing of information (book definition)or mental functions Memory, advanced learning, problem solving Language, judgment, voluntary movement, creativity, dreaming, awareness, acknowledgment Occurs in frontal lobe Common sense comes from experience Basic Concepts of Thought Symbol- any object, sign or action that stands for something else =happy; simple units of thought Concepts- (Category) brain automatically groups things via thought Prototype-concept we use as the standard for grouping objects We automatically characterize everything We have natural categories – we make our own Artificial Categories- 2nd hand account profiles Rules- when you take 2 categories or more and relate them to each other (Generalizations or scripts) Heuristic- rules of thumb (mistakes based off how you categorized people) (only girls have long hair mistake a guy as a girl) The Biology of Thought Current brain scans can show here thought actually takes place in the brain Specific thoughts have specific pathways in the brain (event related potential) Fun Facts No magic bullet; uses the whole brain; also involves clusters in the brain (geographic/area) Common sense (intuition) Information that is based off experience not logic Linked to emotion and limbic system (automatic) Schema Theory- all of our knowledge is stored in memory files called schemas (full of rules and categories) form foundations for all of our ideas and expectations) Whenever information comes our way it either fits into a schema or makes a new one Schemas are born through experience Ex: terminal has about for schemas –hospitals-airplanes-x-box- batterys Jean Piaget Assimilation- when new info (inputs) gets carried/fits into an old schema Accommodation- when you change a schema because of new info The better you accommodate the more schemas you have the better thinker you are; the truer your schema is Event Schema- (script) how an event goes down Problem Solving Good thinkers use a variety of problem solving methods at the right time Whenever the mind is faced with a problem there’s two things it automatically does 1. Identifys the problem 2. Select a method to solve it Using the wrong problem solving method can burn you Method to solve a Problem Algorithm (formula)-never wrong, cant always be used, sometimes they take too long Systematic Search- have an order and try every possible answer until you get it Heuristic- guess or general rule of thumb; assumption (FAST) not always right, 99% of the time it is; assumptions can burn you Representative Heuristic- base your guesses off patterns Availability Heuristic- where you make a guess or assumption off limited information Anchoring heuristic- where we use our past experiences to make an assumption (can burn us) Trial And Error- where you randomly try possible answers till you get the right one You never know when the right answer is going to come up Difference Reduction- identify your goal see how araway you are from it. Then make a decision Mears-end Analysis- steps you take till the end of the process (step by step instructions; sometimes can be formulas) This works well when you know the goal Working Backwards Opposite of Means-end Retrace your steps Good at trying to work towards your goal Problems with Problem Solving Reasons you can’t solve a problem 1. 2. Inexperience 3. Wrong mental set (wrong problem solving method 4. Functional fixedness- where you assume an object or item can only do 1 thing Chapter 8: EMOTIONS AND MOTIVATIONS Emotions: we need them The four parts of emotion o The anatomy of the emotion (hormones, nerves, limbic system) o Perception, cognition o Subjective feelings (memories tied to an emotion) o Behavioral reaction Don’t know which comes first o James the bear talks about this Tied to motivation All emotions involve physical and mental arousal Emotions have evolved over time with man Help us react to events Help us interact with each other Emotions help us deal with reoccurring situation Examples o Fear- keeps us safe o Jealousy- ensures family structure o Humor- creates brotherhood, togetherness Emotions are part of nature vs. nurture debate They are instinctive, but are also learned Universals of emotions Across all cultures Emotions are there to help us interact Affect- facial expressions o Main way we display emotions Face gives away emotion; eyes, eyebrow, mouth Paul Eckman o Said there are 7 basic emotions Sad Angry Surprise Fear Disgust Contempt Happy Robert Plutchik o Emotion wheel o Complex emotions Emotions are universal, all cultures have them How we display them are not universal Display rules- how society expresses themselves By age 5 children will be just as good as adults with reading expressions Gender in America play a role in expressing emotions o Men are encourage aggressive o Women are encouraged to be sad and fearful o These display rules are called gender roles Genders have the same emotions, just the way they are expressed are different Physics and anatomy of emotions When it comes to emotion there are two pathways in the body They work at the same time Pathway 1 o Fast track o It is mainly unconscious o Automatic o It is innate o Can be learned through classic conditioning o Implicit memory o Deeply wired in the brain o Mid brain, oldest part (brain stem) o Early warning system Pathway 2 o Slow track o Back up o Involve the cortex o Largely aware o Involves the endocrine system o Although it is slow, it is very detailed The fast track in action o Goosebumps o Hair standing up on the back of your neck o Phobias Slow track in action o Making oneself cry- slow path then fast path Biology of emotion Limbic system o Deals with fast and slow pathways o In charge of flight or fight(doesn’t matter if it is the endocrine or the central nervous system version) o Amygdala- in charge of fear and aggression RAS o Brain stem o Delivers sensation to the thalamus o Part of the fast pathway o Triggers the central nervous system Ex. High heartbeat, pale face, stomach knot, sweat, dry mouth Cortex o Slow pathway o Add feeling or memory Lateralization of emotion o Left hemisphere- positive emotions o Right hemisphere- negative emotions Autonomic system o Triggered by the RAS o Part of the central nervous system o Broke up into sympathetic and parasympathetic o Parasympathetic- pleasant emotions, calms you down o Sympathetic- fires you up, unpleasant emotions Endocrine system o Hormones o Slow track Physics of emotions 5 theories about how emotions work James-Lange Theory o Body reacts(instinct) before awareness and feelings o You don’t run because you’re afraid of the bear, you were afraid because you ran Cannon-Bard Theory o You become aware of the emotion/stimulus at the same time your body reacts and you ponder your feelings o Everything happens at the same time o Both the fast and slow pathways o Can’t measure which comes first Two-Factor Theory o Emotion comes after people are aware of the environment(feelings about it) and body’s reaction Cognition appraisal theory o You emotion comes after contextual appraisal of the situation(how you feel about it) o Read situation then emotional reaction Opponent processing theory o When you have one emotion another one is being suppressed Emotional control It is important to control emotion both as perception and expression Emotional intelligence Detecting emotions Controlling emotions Can’t always control your emotions, however sometimes you can learn to control some of them Emotional IQ Stoicism- ability to control your emotions Emotional intelligence- the ability to control emotions This involves knowing your emotions and reading other people’s emotions Detecting emotions The ability to read emotions is key to survival We are programmed to detect emotions in normal situations We are not made to detect lies People are mostly bad at lie detecting The keys to detecting emotions o Voice o Eyes o Mouth o T-zone(eyebrows and nose) o Body movements Lie detecting/ lying advice o Practice makes perfect o Avoid people you are familiar with if you’re going to lie o Get to know people for lie detecting o Lying takes mental effort o Look for physical arousal/ body movements Posture, voice pattern, speech errors, touching face or body o Face is easier to control than body o Eyes often indicates truth not the mouth, especially areas around the eyes Anger: how to control it Like all emotions anger is necessary Anger gets a rep because it is associated with aggression and violence 10% of all anger relates to aggression and violence Positives of anger o Allows you to defend yourself o Communicate your feelings o Help you to stand up for yourself o Clarify problems o Most of the time you get angry it is positive When anger is an issue o When it happens a lot o When anger is abnormal o When it leads to aggression and violence Controversy with detecting anger problems Methods of treatment o Relaxation techniques Breathing Stress exercises Counting o Redirection/ skill development Behavior modification Find positive way to express anger o Cognitive therapy Learn to perceive an event differently o Identify what makes you anger and avoid it o Let go of unrealistic goals/ expectations Anger doesn’t often led to feelings of satisfaction o Study shows it led to other unpleasant feelings Motivation Deals with outside and inside factors Nature vs. nurture Sometimes you are aware of it sometime you’re not Motivation is anything that moves you towards or away from something All of the processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical or cognitive activity Linked with emotion Emotions are the gasoline, motivation is the flame Motivation takes many forms and have many theories Types of motivation Drive vs. motive o Drive- nature based motivation Examples- hunger, thirst, need to be warm, sex o Motive- motivation that is learned through experiences Examples- money, status symbols, grades o Sometimes motivation can be both a drive and a motive Intrinsic vs. extrinsic o Intrinsic- something you do for its own sake Examples- leisure activities Often the best type of motivation o Extrinsic- motivation linked to rewards/ punishments Examples- stopping at a stop sign, work Conscious vs. unconscious o Conscious motivation- motivation you are aware of o Unconscious motivation- motivation you are unaware of 5 theories on motivation No one is quite sure on how motivation works Nature vs. nurture Instinct theory o Oldest theory o Pure nature o We are motivated by instinct(fixed action pattern) Examples- baby and nursing, ability to learn a language o Most instincts stay constant, however experience can bend them Example- birds will use monuments as an aid when flying south o Too simple works well for simple animals o Doesn’t work for complex people Drive theory(newer version of the instinct theory) o We all have needs(innate)if we don’t meet these needs our chance for survival goes down o Our drives lead us to meet our needs which in turn leads to survival o Homeostasis- balance between want and too much Body always looking to find homeostasis o Drive reduction- when drive is reduce When someone needs something badly the drive intensifies, as you move to homeostasis the drive will reduce o Why do people go over homeostasis Skydiving issue- why do people take the risk and lower their chance for survival Cognitive social learning theory o Motivation is purely environment based or learning based o 2 things for motivation Value of the goal Expectation of success o Locus of control- how much somebody feels the can control their life Are you responsible for your success/ failures Internal locus of control- people who feel they have control of their life External locus of control- people who are a victim of experiences and the environment Psychodynamic theory o Motivated by the unconscious o Aggression, sex, conformity, hunger Maslow’s theory o We are motivated to fulfill our needs and be happy o When you fulfill a need you are happy Some needs are better than others o Hierarchy of needs-ranking system of the needs that makes us happy Split into two levels Four lower levels- basic levels of needs Most people have these 3 higher levels-most people don’t get to these needs o Self-actualization- the top of the ranking system, when people meet all their needs and are happy o Motivated to fulfill our needs and be happy o Problems More to life than happiness Can you skip levels 3 main motivators Hunger o 4 reasons why Multiple system approach- all of them together Body needs energy Preferences Schedules/ environment factors Cultural demands o Set point- reaching homeostasis- you’re fill o Two main eating disorders Bulimia- overeating followed by fasting/ binge and purge Anorexia- don’t eat 10 to 1 female to male ratio Nurtured or environmental o Why are people so fat Evolution has cheated people, the food that humans prefer have sweets and fats During caveman times these are the food they prefer because of the feast/famine society Problem today is that we don’t live in a feast/famine society o Thirst Natured based Sex One of the few motivators that doesn’t involve homeostasis The pleasure in sex occurs when the tension and drive are satisfied One of the only motivations that has nothing to do with personal survival Involves survival of the species 3 reasons for sex Pleasure Reproduction Social bonding o Wired to do it- nature- hormones o Nurtured element- sexual scripts(schemas)- expectations and taboos o Two successful sex studies Kinsey study- 1950 Masters Johnson study- 1970 Hard to do studies People lie Not many people want to do it o evolution theory men women -More is good -less is fine -Less invested -more invested achievement o main motivator o primarily psychological o certainty, knowing o extrinsic- recognition, fame, praise, money o intrinsic- personal satisfaction o TAT(thematic apperception test)-measure motivation to achieve o nAch- need for achievement the higher the number the more motivated you are o Collectivism vs. individualism -MainlyAsia -Europe/ America -value group achievement -value individual achievement o o o o o Stress tied to motivation and emotion product of evolution warning system/ first aid kit/ tool that helps us survive stress- a physical or mental response to a threatening situation stressor- any stimulus that forces the body to adapt our body is built to handle short term stress not geared for long term stress stress has the same physics as emotions acute stress- short term stress, can be minor or major chronic stress- prolonged stress primitive stressor- stressors that are key top survival o examples starvation exposure mortal attack traumatic stress- stressor that effects safety and arouses fear and helplessness o example terrorist attacks natural disasters death responses to stress o fight or flight #1 method to deal with stress wired/preprogrammed in brain short term situations cannot be taught but can be modified o freezing(withdrawal)- when a stressor is too much or too confusing that peole may freeze o tend and befriend found mostly in women women are biologically predispose to be nurturing and protective in times of stress gather the group and protect promote emotional support o post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) deals with a traumatic stressor side effects that occur long after the stress is gone side effects paranoia/anxiety flashbacks depression disorganization inability to concentrate apathy memory issues drug abuse nothing to do with reason or logic o general adaptation syndrome(GAS) 3 stage process for dealing with long term stress 1st stage- aggressive fighting-body and mind are mobilizing 2nd stage- body starts to break down and starts to pool it resources to continue the attack on the stressor(side effects will occur) 3rd stage- complete exhaustion, giving up- it opens the body up to illness Type A personality vs. type B personality -Perfectionist -laid back -Proactive -don’t get worked up -intense -competitive -emotional -doesn’t live as long *One is not better than the other* Chapter 9: PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT Nature vs. nurture nature vs. nurture -Genetics -environment -Biology -path -Potential -journey interaction- when nature and nurture works together “nature proposes, nurture disposes” developmental psychology- psychologists who focus on how nature and nurture leads to our development o biggest field in psychology o very practical Continuous development vs. discontinuous development -We grow at a constant and continuous pace -we grow in stages -Gradually -timing is important, but order of the -pre 19 hundreds stages are the most important -works well with language Babies newborns/ infants innate abilities that keep them alive like survival robots as a child gets older learning becomes a factor nature is the boss from pre-birth to around 2 years old 3 stages of early childhood development o prenatal- still in belly o neonatal- just born babies o infancy Prenatal 9 months broken up into 3 trimesters zygote- when the egg becomes fertilize o for about a week o blank cells multiply embryo- when zygote implants itself into the uterine wall o comes after about 10 days o lasts for about 8 weeks o stem cells o early embryos- all the cells are blank, genetic code, but no job o at 4-5 weeks the cells will differentiate , have specific jobs fetus o after 8 weeks the embryo will become a fetus o organ development o heartbeat placenta (womb)- sac that separates the baby from the mothers blood stream, filters things that body comes in contact with teratogens- viruses or poisons that the placenta cannot keep out, can have a negative effect on the baby genetic code will dictate what will happen in the fetus, the development neural tube- a tube in the fetus where the brain and spinal cord are created Neo-Natal new born period first couple of months senses and reflexes developing dendrites are growing grasping reflex posture reflex- ability of the newborn to stay somewhat sited, keeping balance startle reflex- where the newborn will flinch and jump Infancy neo-natal to 1 ½-2 end of infancy is when you start to talk large growth of the brain synaptic pruning (use it or lose it)- if certain nerve chains are not uses in infancy, they will never develop touching is an important part of neural development classic condition is the first learning synchronicity- when babies will mimic care givers imprinting- when an animal will attach itself to the first creature it meets attachment- when the infant bonds with the care giver o primary attachment- main care giver will get the primary attachment o secondary attachment o healthy attachment o unhealthy attachment separation anxiety strange situation- children with separation anxiety tend to have separation issues when they get older o apathy or too much attachment cupboard theory- attachment comes because of food and protection, it’s an evolution thing o people who believe in breast feeding likes this theory contact attachment- attachment comes from touch o when you feed a kid you touch them in most neonatal units they require the babies to be held once an hour babies that are not held are less healthy and won’t grow as tall Jean Piaget French first cognitive psychologist early 19 hundreds use to give IQ tests to kids noticed all kids make the same mistakes before Piaget the belief was that kids brain just needed to be filled post Piaget- children’s brains develop at stages 4 important things o brain develop in stages o schema theory o accommodation and assimilation o motivated by certainty schema theory o schema- mental model of a thing or an event o all our thoughts are organized into schemas assimilation- new info is put into schemas with old info accommodation- when new info change or creates new schemas Piaget 4 stages of development o sensory motor- 0-2 years o pre-operation- 2-7 years o concrete operations- 7-11 years o formal operations- 12-16 years o kids experience these stages at different ages Sensory motor stage at first it is all reflexive just respond to the environment around 1 month they get goal directed actions moving and learning how to use the senses fascination with body parts around 6 months understand cause and effect (knock things over) start to recognize people and things learn to avoid what they don’t like object permanence- knowing things exist even if you can’t sense it o missing numbers, greater amounts Pre-operational stage basic one sided thought comes up with simple explanations egocentrism- self-centered focus, causes children to see the world only in terms of themselves don’t have moral, use rewards and punishments animistic thinking- giving inanimate objects human characteristics centration- when you cannot see things from more than one point of view, one factor at a time artificailistic thinking- think things in nature are man made conservation- when children realize that if shape or appearance change, the object is still the same o end of pre-operation no logic yet Concrete operations 7-11 hands on thought physically experiencing it complex (two sided) thought- logic language is mastered can solve things in there head if experienced before reversibility- can do stuff backwards in their head have morals Formal operations puberty abstract thought introspection analyze society analyzing stereotypes high level morality role in society Problems with Piaget children who have a hard time expressing themselves abstract thought is hard to prove Wernicke’s and Broca’s issues Erik Erikson how society shapes us famous in the 60s psycho-sociology- study of how human interaction shapes thought and behavior Erikson’s psychosocial stages trust vs. mistrust o 0-1 ½ years o Does someone take care of you? o children have no control over things o successful: you’ll have trust forever o fail: trust issues autonomy vs. self-doubt o 1 ½ to 3 years o confidence vs. shame o potty training/ doing things by yourself o successful: confidence o fail: self-esteem issues initiative vs. guilt o 3 to 6 years o do things independently, have rules/ boundaries o no rules= lawless/ wild child o follow rules= well adjusted, allow to do stuff o didn’t do things on their own= dependent o too many rules= timid, scared competence vs. inferiority o 6 years to puberty o success vs. not as good o school, friends, activities o elementary school o finding success in anything to have control o bullies: small ones becomes class clowns or trouble makers . . . need to feel successful identity vs. role confusion o adolescence o formal operations o new bodies/ new minds/ new roles (ids) o New role . . . what is it? Emerging adulthood -Modern nations -Exploration -Once you get married or have children this ends -New stage not created by Erikson intimacy vs. isolation o early adulthood o finding meaningful relationships o importance on things in life o career o material possessions o fail: feel like the world left you behind generativity vs. stagnation o middle adulthood o standing still vs. producing o getting old o excepting death o if happy no issue o if not happy midlife crisis o having kids (that like you)/ legacy ego-integrity vs. despair o late adulthood o success: look back on life with no regrets o fail: regrets life o suicide/ alcohol rates highest for senior citizens Problems with Erikson things aren’t set in stone need one for the modern age Adolescence relative to society society judges primary sexual characteristics- physical things, body parts developing secondary sexual characteristics- facial hair, height, changing of voice peer transformation- friends shape you more than family as an agent of socialization o prefer to hang out with people own age delinquency- being bad o 6% of male adolescence o 2/3 to ¾ of delinquent boys comes from a one parent house hold o # 1 way to fight delinquency- 3 to 7 o’clock activities Old age betrayed by body and mind have experience experience covers up mind and body betrayal new population- Americans/ Europeans are living to be older, and there are more of them divorce rates are higher people wait to get married Parenting styles permissive o loving but not strict o let kids o do what they want o going to have wild kids uninvolved o show no love or discipline authoritarian o very strict o shy when little, revolt/resent when older authorative o loving/ strict, but flexible Moral development Kohlberg follows Piaget 3 stages o egocentric (pre conventional morality) will I get punished will I get rewarded when making decisions use rewards and punishments o theory of mind (conventional morality) fitting in- do right to fit in without rules there chaos- would I want others to do it o healthy ego (post conventional) do what’s best for society developing own ethical code many don’t get here Problems o not empirical o relative o doesn’t work for other cultures Chapter 11 Testing Validity Whether the test measures what it’s supposed Things examined when deciding whether a test is valid or not Face Validity—is it testing the correct material Content Validity—does it prove you truly understand the material Item Analysis—each question is compared back to the topic its testing Criterion Validity—how someone does is measured against how well someone is expected to do Reliability Consistent results—getting the grade you deserve Ways to measure reliability Test-retest Reliability—getting the same score after retaking the test Split-half Reliability—cut the test in half—scores on both halves are similar Standardization and Norms Standardized Tests has to be two things Administration and scoring guidelines are the same for each student The results of the test can be used to draw conclusions about students Bell curve is used to measure norms—a range of normal scores show up a lot Higher=giftedness Lower=mental retardation Types of Tests Objective Tests Multiple Choice/Selected Response—usually scored easily by machine Ex. MMPI Meyers Briggs Subjective Tests Given an ambiguous picture to say what they see/open ended questions How subjects pick up, hold, look at, are considered as well as how long it takes and the answer itself Issue arises with inter-rater reliability—two graders scoring the test the same Ink Blot TAT Ethics and Standards in Testing Test scores are sent to the test taker and the test developers and scorers. When releasing data it is only group data never individual test scores. How is Intelligence Measured? Intelligence=hypothetical construct—not directly observable but inferred from behavior Binet and Simon—Ability Test They were asked to invent a test that would tell if a student needs remedial help Four Important Features Distinguish the Binet-Simon Approach Thought of their scores as current ability not innate ability Finding children that needed special help—not interested in labeling them dumb or smart Knew training could affect intelligence so they indentified areas of performance that special education could help children that took the test They constructed their test empirically—how children were observed to perform—than theory of intelligence Scores were expressed in terms of: Mental Age (MA) the average age an individual achieves a certain score Chronological Age (CA) person’s actual age American Psychologist Borrow Binet and Simon’s Idea Americans wanted to test their children like the French so they took the test and made it into an IQ test for America Americans Interest in Intelligence Tests Resulted From Wave of immigration—from global economic, political, and social crises New laws for universal education flooded schools with children WWI military needed a way of assessing and classifying new recruits *Consequences Public knew tests could identify peoples terms of mental ability Tests were used to reinforce prevailing prejudices Army reports noticed score differences in race or country of origin People became labeled morons, idiots, and imbeciles (degrees of MR) Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Mental age divided by Chronological age times 100—average score would equal 100 Lewis Terman—Stanford University Professor introduced it Thought intelligence is innate and his IQ test could measure it—unchanging about people Instead of using the original formula they started to grade on a curve Mental Retardation—Psychological Disorders Giftedness—top 2% Terman’s longitudinal studies showed that gifted students excel in life are healthy and happy Components of Intelligence Savant Syndrome—remarkable but limited talent and are mentally slow in other ways Some psychologists think intelligence is a single, general factor, while others believe intelligence is best described as a collection of abilities Psychometric Theories of Intelligence Psychometrics—field of “mental measurements” Spearman’s g Factor Spearman saw that individuals scores on different tests that have different kinds of questions have a high correlation. He said this pointed to one factor—general intelligence He called this the g Factor. Modern Neuroscientists have found evidence for Spearman’s claim Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Cattell found out general intelligence can be broken down into two categories Crystallized Intelligence—knowledge a person has acquired and the ability to access that knowledge Fluid Intelligence—ability to see complex relationships and solve problems Cognitive Theories on Intelligence Intelligence—involves cognitive processes that contribute to success in many areas of life not just school Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory The idea that there three types of intelligence—independent of each other Practical Intelligence—ability to cope people and events in their environment Sometimes called “street smarts” Analytical Intelligence—ability to analyze problems and find correct answers Sometimes called logical reasoning Creative Intelligence—develops new ideas and sees new relationships Creativity Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Multiple Intelligences—7 separate mental abilities Interpersonal Intelligence Understands other people’s emotions, motives, and works well with others Intrapersonal Intelligence Understands oneself and have a sense of identity Spatial Intelligence Ability to create mental images of objects in relevance to space Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Ability to control movement and coordination Musical Intelligence Ability to perform compose and appreciate music Logical-Mathematic Intelligence Understands analogies, logic and math problems Linguistic Intelligence Vocabulary tests and reading comprehension All components of intelligence are equally important Cultural Definitions of Intelligence “Intelligence” can have different meanings in different cultures Different cultures prize different qualities Native American Concepts of Intelligence Wise, thinks hard, and thinks carefully “Backwards Knowledge” “lives like a white”—is a phrase meaning the opposite of intelligence Expectations Influences Performance Self-Fulfilling Prophecy—told they are good in turn they act better and there is significant improvement Negative Expectations—make people feel they are not good enough Psychologist Explain IQ Difference Most psychologists agree that both heredity and environment affect intelligence, however they disagree when it comes to race and social groups Heredity Influences Intelligence Parents and Children and Twins even apart have similar IQ scores Environment and Intelligence Heritability Chapter 12 Psychological Disorders Mental Illnesses 3 Theories on Mental Illness Freudian Belief Past events unconscious society Horney Belief Regular behavior taken to an extreme Normal Neurotic Psychosis Biopsychology Physically in the brain Endorphins—hormones—Brain waves Psychopathology= Mental Illness= Mental Disorder Soft Science Study of mental illness is the softest science NOT EMPIRICAL more politics 3 Guidelines for Judging Mental Illness (has to be all three to be a mental illness) Abnormal Behavior that is thought to be abnormal Maladaptive Hurts your ability to function in society Distress (Discomfort) Must cause pain or distress Many Levels of Mental Illness Medical Model (Original Model) Treat mental illness like a disease problems in life Pro-doctor Pro-Medicinal Pro-Psychiatry was and still is the model Causes and Cures Got people to treat mental illnesses and not think it was the devil in you Bad Practiced doctors know best Psychological Model Counseling more Social Psychology Mental illness is a problem not a disease 1940s tend to be anti-doctor History of Mental Illness Greek times Gods possessed you and made you mad Medieval Times Possessed by the devil 1750s Locked up and executed 1800s Jails and asylums 1930s Asylums to cure and then get out DSM IV (Diagnostic Statistical Manual 4th Edition) Bible of mental illnesses First published in the 60s 4th edition 1994 2000 update Will not do a full rewrite Behaviorism Developmental Disorders—Can develop in childhood or adolescence Mental Retardation Low IQ Low Mental Age 4 Levels Mild Mental Retardation Never make it to abstract thought Moderate Mental Retardation Simple Life—Mind of 12 year old Severe Mental Retardation Mind of 3 year old Profound Mental Retardation Never learn how to walk or talk Autism Many versions Asperger’s Rets It is not mental retardation Communication and social skill issues Don’t handle change well Lack theory of mind Vaccine companies funded studies saying there was no correlation between vaccines and autism Dyslexia Reading disorder Trouble with turning written words to mental words Catching it early so kids don’t feel they are dumb ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) Trouble with focus, concentration, and attention span Things don’t stay in magic seven It’s controversial to be diagnosed over diagnosed medication Eating Disorders Anorexia Unrealistic body image obsessed with weight Bulimia Eating followed by fasting or purging America—9 in 10 eating disorders are females *evidence of nurture over nature Somatoform Soma=body Mental Illnesses where people have physical problem because of psychological condition Physical problem is real but only in the head Conversion Disorder Lose a physical function with no physical reason (not consciously faking) Freud discovered this—Blindness Deafness paralyzed Appendages Hard to diagnose don’t seem concerned about happened Hypochondria People exaggerate ailments and think there is something seriously wrong Obsesses about their symptoms Often abuse their medications—Keep changing doctors until they get some meds Anxiety Based Disorders #1 Mental Illness in America A sort of nervousness fear Anxiety—state of nervousness ordered in response to imagined or slight dangers Anxiety isn’t just fear since fear is necessary. Fear is justified Physical Signs Tense up Dry Mouth Dizziness Sweating Crying 5 Major Kinds Phobia Constant Irrational Fear of an object or situation It is more than a dislike *Sometimes lead to panic attacks Panic Attacks Unpredictable short periods of intense dread Shuts them down Can cause Anticipatory Anxiety—worrying about next anxiety attack General Anxiety People who worry a lot (abnormal) Cloud of worry around them Stress Disorder PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) Scarring thing happens and causes—flashbacks and shaking and avoidance Acute Stress Disorder Minor form of PTSD Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Obsessive-cant stop thinking about something Compulsive-repetition Irrational beliefs use a repetitive behavior to get rid of anxiety Try to hide their behavior Treatment—Medications Behavior Therapy Mood Disorders Everyone has moods but moods being irrational and messing up life it’s a Mental Illness Depression Over two weeks 5 out of the 9 symptoms Depressed most of the day Lose pleasure in most activities Weight loss/gain Change in sleeping patterns Lethargic (Loss of energy) Feelings of worthlessness Thoughts of suicide Trouble concentrating Speeding up or slowing down of emotions or reactions 8 to 20% experience depression mild to severe Bipolar Disorder (Manic Depression) Mood changes (Normal most of the time) Occur for no reason (Mania is the worst part of it) Mania can be: High Confidence, Constant Talking, Can’t Focus, Argue, Hallucinations If untreated the illness can be extremely maladaptive Schizophrenia—Most serious and dangerous of all mental illnesses *Without meds it gets worse—Nicknamed the thinking disease Affects everything seen sensed moved and done Distorted reality some even lose reality *Brain is scrambled* Most cases start between 17 and 23—Hard to diagnose at first slow start Treatment Strong Medications—No magic bullet meds have side effects Impotence Lose teeth and hair Can’t Focus New Meds are getting better but aren’t perfect Medical Paradox Meds help and they get better= think they are better and stop using= crash worse than normal symptoms with no meds Causes Heredity Some Believe Environmental Hard Lives=more likely *Really don’t know the cause* 5 Main Symptoms Hallucinations Sense things not there—Brain betrays you—Hear voices/see things Delusions—Irrational beliefs Grandeur--Greatness Persecution—Out to get you Guilt—Done something wrong they can’t overcome Scrambled Speech and Movement (Shaking) loss of bowel movements Loss of Social Skills Talk and yell at the wrong time Catatonic Victim goes into motionless coma-like state Five Types of Schizophrenia Catatonic Schizophrenia Get catatonic states Disorganized Schizophrenia Speech and movements are scrambled—move in jerky fashion Paranoid Schizophrenia Get delusions and hallucinations—brain makes up theme or story line Undifferentiated Schizophrenia Two or more forms of schizophrenia Residual Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is in remission on medication Personality Disorders Inflexible traits that are abnormal, maladaptive, and cause pain—Constant A lot of gray area Five Major Personality Disorder Paranoid Personality Disorder Always distrusting and suspicious—tend to be cold or aloof and easily insulted Schizoid Personality Disorder No interest in social relationships—don’t want to be around others—don’t get attached—show little emotion Avoidant Personality Disorder Avoid social relationships because they are scared—want friends but are afraid Anti-Social Personality Disorder No regards for others—no guilt—selfish—violate the rights of others Don’t care for conformity or punishment—good at pretending if it will pay off master manipulator—sometimes when younger they kill manipulating Borderline Personality Disorder Cannot control emotions—thin skinned—fly off the handle—bond too quickly love to rage quickly—feelings dictate behavior Dissociative Disorders Become separated from awareness—ability to observe from outside the body Four Types of Dissociative Disorders Dissociative Amnesia (Psychogenic) Stressful event occurs(not physical)—memory or identity is lost—recovery varies Dissociative Fugue Something stressful happens and lose identity and develop another one When old identity comes back the new one is lost Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder) 2 or more personalities Sometimes they are aware of each other sometimes not They can all be different can’t be controlled Most people with this disorder kill themselves before they are diagnosed Depersonalization Extreme dissociation—view themselves from the outside—extremely cold with emotions—external locus of control Therapy (counseling) Many forms of it—A form of treatment—effort to improve mental behavioral or social well-being Two varieties Biological Treat illness by medicine altering the brain--#1 treatment is drugs Psycho-surgery—Hydro-therapy—Electric shock therapy—magnetic Psychological Insight (Talk Therapy) Focus on why a problem happened Behavioral Therapy Changing the way people think and behave Operant/Classic Conditioning Aversion Therapy Make them not want to Exposure Therapy (flooding) Systematic Desensitization Baby steps to get over Chapter 13: Therapy What is Therapy? Treatment comes in many forms, both psychological and biomedical, but most involve diagnosing the problem, finding the source of the problem, making a prognosis, and carrying out treatment Therapy for psychological disorders takes a variety of forms, but all involve some relationship 2 Main Approaches to Therapy Psychological Model1. feel) Insight therapy- (Talk Therapy) “Why a problem Is occurring” (How does that make you a. Psychoanalysis- using such techniques as free association and dream interpretation, its goal is to bring repressed material out of unconscious ; emphasize social situation, interpersonal relationships, and self-concept b. Humanistic Therapy- focuses on individuals becoming more fully self- actualized; strive to establish a positive self-image c. Cognitive Therapy- concentrates on changing negative or irrational thoughts about oneself and their social relationships; must form positive thought patterns; effective for depression d. Group Therapy- self-help groups (AA) family therapy and couples therapy concentrate on situational difficulties in the whole system 2. Behavioral therapy- focuses on changing how people think and behave EX: Operant/Classical Conditioning a. Aversion Therapy-presenting individuals with an attractive stimulus paired with unpleasant(aversive) stimulation in order to conditionrevulsion(make people miserable after they are drunk ) b. Exposure- flooding with fear c. Systematic Desensitization-(a little at a time) anxiety is extinguished by exposing the patient to an anxiety-provoking stimulus d. Contingency Management-changing behavior by altering the consequences; especially reward and punishments of behavior e. Token Economy-distribution of “tokens” or other indicators of reinforcement contingent on desired behaviors. The tokens can later be exchanged for privileges or reinforcers f. Participant Modeling-a social learning technique in which a therapist demonstrates and encourages a client to imitate a desired behavior Cognitive –Behavior Therapy- combines the techniques of cognitive therapy with those of behavior therapy REBT-Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy- based on the idea that irrational thoughts and behaviors are the cause of mental disorders Psychologists employ two main forms of treatment: the insight therapies (focused on developing understanding of the problem) and the behavior therapies (focused on changing behavior through conditioning) Biological Model- treats MI by medicine and altering the chemistry and physics of the brain EX: Drugs, Psychosurgery (Brain Surgery), Hydrotherapy, ECT (electric Conversion Therapy) Electroshock Therapy, Transcranial Magnetic Treatment (TMS), yoga, acupuncture Active listener- a person who gives the speaker feedback in such forms as nodding, paraphrasing, maintaining an expression that show interest, and asking questions for clarification Psychopharmacology- The prescribed use of drugs to help treat symptoms of mental illness ostensibly to ensure that individuals are more receptive to talk therapies Antipsychotic drugs- medicines that diminish psychotic symptoms, usually by their on the dopamine pathways in in the brain Tardive dyskinesia- an incurable disorder of motor control, especially involving muscles of the face and head, resulting from long-term use of antipsychotic drugs Antidepressant drugs- medicines that affect depression, usually by their effort on the serotonin and/or norepinephrine pathways in the brain Lithium carbonate- a simple chemical compound that is highly effective in dampening the extreme mood swings of bipolar disorder Antianxiety drugs- a category of drugs that include the barbiturates and benzodiazepines, drugs that diminish feelings of anxiety Stimulants- drugs that normally increase activity level by encouraging communication among neurons in the brain. Attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder- (ADHD) A commonproblem in children who have difficulty controlling their behavior and focusing their attention Therapeutic Community- program of treating mental disorders by making the institutional environment supportive and humane for patients Deinstitutionalization- the policy of removing patients, whenever possible, from mental hospitals Community mental health movement- an effort to deinstitutionalize mental patients and to provide therapy from outpatient clinics. Proponents of Community mental health envisioned that recovering patients could live with their families, in foster homes, or in group homes Chapter 14 Social Psychology Studies how social interactions, variables, and cognition affects us Three Themes Power of Social Situations The impact of minor features has on what we think and how we feel and act Construction of a Subjective Social Reality Expectations and perceptions help us understand how we feel Promoting Human Condition Understanding violence terrorism and resolving conflicts Power of Social Situations We change our normal behavior to the demands of situation Without previous knowledge we imitate those around us The way we conform relies heavily on the social norms of the social roles we are given Social Roles Socially defined patterns of behavior that are expected of people in a setting *role taken around people*familydaughter or sister—Schoolstudent or friend Role can come from interests, abilities, goals, or be imposed by groups Cultural, economic, or biological conditions Adoption of one role makes another less likely—student not likely to be drug pusher Social Norms A group’s standard for acceptable behavior Emergent Norm—norm that emerges from situation Conformity into another’s group usually happens two ways Uniformities and regularities noticed Recognizing negative consequences when someone deviates Getting Good People to do Bad Things Provide people with justifications for their actions Have them start by doing something small and then make it bigger Make the leaders seem like they are right in what they do Slowly transform a compassionate leader into a dictator Give vague rules that can be changed Change the people and their actions to make it seem right Show people how other people comply to things Allow people to verbally oppose as long as their actions comply Encourage dehumanizing the victims Make exiting the situation difficult Bystander Problem People develop a sense of diffusion of responsibility with more people Sense of obligation to react decreases because they think someone else will help Reward Theory (Prefer Rewarding Relationships) Exchange of benefits Money, Possessions, Praise, Status, Information, Sex, or Emotional Support Reward Theory of Attraction Attraction is a form of social learning Proximity—nearness makes it more likely for people to be friends Similarity—someone who shares beliefs, interests, values, and experiences Similarity Principle—attracted to those most similar to themselves Self-Disclosure—sharing intimate details about themselves and trusting Physical Attractiveness—how someone looks is a big part of the relationship Expectations and the Influence of Self-Esteem Matching hypothesis People will find friends and mates about their same level of attractiveness Expectancy-Value Theory Weighing how important/special the person is against if they will be successful Attraction and Self-Justification Cognitive Dissonance Motivating state when a person has conflicting cognitions—actions conflict with attitudes ex. A Republican politician publicly agreeing with a Democratic politician Cognitive Attributions Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) Tendency to think of internal causes and ignore external ones Biased Thinking about Yourself Self-Serving Bias—need for self-esteem When things go right we say it’s our talent When things go wrong we say it’s because of things out of our control Prejudice Negative thoughts about someone based on their group Discrimination Negative actions taken against a member or a group for their beliefs Social Distance—difference or similarity between two people In Groups—groups toward which one feels loyalty Smaller the social distance more likely to be in the in-group Out Groups—groups toward which one feels antagonism Bigger the social distance the more likely to be in the out-group Scapegoating Blaming someone or a group their own troubles Other Topics in Social Psychology Social Facilitation Individual does better because they are apart of a group Social Loafing Individual does worse because they are in a group Deindividuation Someone loses themselves and a group starts to be what the person is Group Polarization People in a group have similar but not identical thoughts making their beliefs more extreme Groupthink Excessive tendency to seek agreement among group members Romantic Love Temporary and emotional condition because of infatuation and sexual desire Triangular Theory of Love (Three Components) Passion (erotic attraction) Intimacy (sharing of one’s feelings) Commitment (willingness to put the relationship first) Romantic Love—high on passion and intimacy but low on commitment Friendship—characterized by intimacy but not by passion and commitment Infatuation—high level of passion, but is not intimate or a committed relationship Complete Love (Consummate Love)—involves all three passion, intimacy, and commitment Violence and Terrorism Power of situation helps people understand violence and terrorism, but true understanding requires many perspectives beyond traditional psychology Violence and Aggression Behavior that is intended to cause harm Cohesiveness Solidarity, loyalty, and a sense of group membership Mutual Independence A shared sense that both the group and individuals need each other to achieve things Terrorism Use of violent unpredictable acts by a smaller group against a larger group for political economic or religious reasons Kelman’s Conflict Resolution Approach Cooperation and conflict reduction might ease international tensions What is Deviance? Deviance: any violation of social norms Different cultures have different norms, what is considered “deviant” varies across cultures. Example: holding hands Forms of Deviance: Crime: form of deviance in which the violation of rules has been written into law Stigma: characteristics that discredit people. To be considered deviant, a person does not even have to do anything. How Norms Make Social Life Possible: Norms: normal and accepted behavior Norms make social life possible by making behavior predicable. Social Order: A groups unusual and customary social arrangement, on which they base their lives-> our lives are based on these groups. Social Control: a groups formal or informal means of enforcing its norms Sociobiologists: Explain defiance by looking for answers WITHIN the body. It’s in your biological make-up Genetic Dispositions: in-born tendencies to commit deviant acts Psychologists: Focus on abnormalities WITHIN the individual psyche Personality Disorders: the view that a personality disturbance causes one to deviate from social norms.
