Technology Enhanced Language Learning: A Review and
Assessment of the Literature
Berrin Genc-Ersoy
Anadolu University, Graduate School of Educational Sciences, Department of Elementary
Education, Turkey
berring@anadolu.edu.tr
Mehmet Ersoy
Anadolu University, Graduate School of Educational Sciences, Department of Computer Education
and Instructional Technology, Turkey
mehmetersoy@ogu.edu.tr
Abstract: Language learning is an essential part of human communication and any
educational system. In this process, technological tools and symbol systems help provide
proper linguistic symbols. There are various high-tech, mid-tech and low-tech
communication systems that are used for language acquisition, and as emerging
technologies affect the way students learn a language, research on relevant educational
approaches gains importance. With this regard, the aim of the current study is to review
research carried out on technology enhanced language learning (TELL). Within the scope of
the research, the studies between 2003 and 2013 were investigated with respect to three
major categories namely; exploratory, descriptive and experimental studies. Besides, it was
also aimed to investigate the past literature reviews and discuss different roles of technology
in language learning. The results of the study show that most of the studies are
descriptive and there are limited experimental and design-based research studies. Also it is
understood that there is a lack of the studies on listening skills, and comprehension through
listening.
Introduction
The rapid growth in technology changes the way we access, use and share knowledge. High-tech
information systems, especially social networking sites (SNS) enable people “to speak” a global language
driven by the interaction with all around the world. While the application of technology in language
classrooms included the use of film, radio, television, language labs with audio/video tapes, computers, and
interactive video in 1980s (Cunningham, 1998), today we all use electronic dictionaries, e-mail, blog and
search engines in parallel with the recent developments. The related literature can be separated into three
major categories of learning types integrated with technology: a) Computer Assisted Language Learning
(CALL), b) Technology Enhanced Language Learning (TELL) and c) Mobile Assisted Language Learning
(MALL), while there is no exact distinction between one another.
Computer Assisted Language Learning is briefly defined by Levy (1997) as “the search for and
study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning” and a broad range of applications
can serve on the CALL procedure. Computer tools such as word processors and desk-top publishers might
serve as a model of Communicative CALL. Although knowing the truth, they patiently provide only the
requested information or activities in order to lead to exploration and discovery on the part of the student.
Using this method, we can describe the role of the computer in Communicative CALL as stimulator or
reality. The types of computer programs using a communicative approach might still include those of the
drill and practice type. The point with Communicative CALL however is that students' choice, control and
interaction play a more important role. Other types of Communicative CALL programs rely on the model of
computer-as-stimulus. In this case, the purpose of the CALL activity is not so much to have students
discover the right answer, but rather to stimulate student’s discussion, writing, or critical thinking (Jahromi,
2005).
Ghasemi, Hashemi and Bardine (2011) point out that new computer-based instructional
technologies were incorporated in order to accomplish the following:
• provide more visually stimulating course material,
• Attempt to address a wider variety of learning styles,
• incorporate authentic materials found on the World Wide Web,
• promote on-line communication in the target language,
• encourage cultural comparisons, and
• provide students with more opportunities to achieve success in foreign language reading, writing,
listening, and speaking as well as second-culture competency.
To emphasize the growing invisibility of the tool and the shift in emphasis on the users of the tool,
it would seem appropriate to employ a different term to characterize this period in the evolution of
computer use in language teaching. We refer to Computer Assisted Language Learning, we will now
instead adopt the term Technology Enhanced Language Learning. The distinction between CALL and
TELL is that the computer simultaneously becomes less visible yet more ubiquitous. The change in
emphasis from computer to technology places direct importance on the media of communication made
possible by the computer, which itself often remains unseen, rather than on the computer itself. In CALL,
the computer assists learning, it might be said that in TELL, the computer supports learning. This third
phase of technology use in second and foreign-language teaching is characterized by the use of multimedia
and the internet (Jahromi, 2005).
Kukulska-Hulme and Shield (2008) noted that MALL differs from computer assisted language
learning in its use of personal, portable devices that enable new ways of learning, emphasizing continuity or
spontaneity of access and interaction across different contexts of use. On the other hand, Lan (2009) points
out that the unique features of TELL, including multimedia function, portability, social interactivity,
connectivity, individuality, and immediacy, have led to TELL having been attracting increasing attention in
the studies on language learning, such as the quantities of related research in CALL and MALL.
The Study
There are a few recent reviews on the issue of technology enhanced language learning. Aguilar
(2012) reviews the literature on blended learning and language teacher, and notes that as online
technologies have improved in quality and power, while the same cannot be said about online pedagogies.
The researcher also point out that research supported by different theoretical and methodological
perspectives is required to better characterize the ways in which teachers and other educational actors come
to terms with new pedagogical practices. The related literature between 1997-2001 is reviewed by Zhao
(2003), and the review found that existing literature on the effectiveness of technology uses in language
education is very limited in four aspects:
a) The number of systematic, well-designed empirical evaluative studies of the effects of technology
uses in language learning is very small,
b) the settings of instruction where the studies were conducted were limited to higher education and
adult learners,
c) the languages studied were limited to common foreign languages and English as a foreign or second
language, and
d) the experiments were often short-term and about one or two aspects of language learning (e.g.,
vocabulary or grammar).
It is a reality that despite the comprehensive studies in the current literature, there are limited metaanalyses and literature reviews. The purpose of the current study accordingly is to review ten years of the
literature regarding technology enhanced language learning and discuss the current state of the field. A total
of 41 research studies between 2003 and 2013 were investigated with respect to three major categories
namely; exploratory, descriptive and experimental studies. The search was also limited by document type
and language and studies that have the key word second language were excluded.
Descriptive Studies
Cacciatore (2010) conducted a discourse analysis on hybrid literacy by using four student and their
teachers’ online and face to face (f2f) interaction as verbal data. The results of the study show that
participants made similar comments that both online and f2f interactions are quite democratic, and ensure
them develop cognitive, social and textual skills within the context of language learning. Another study on
the qualitative research paradigm is about classroom-independent language learning process conducted by
Hsu (2005), integrating e-mail, Messenger and Skype into teaching. The study shows that these
technologies motivate students and make them take responsibility more independently than in-classroom
learning.
Turgut and İrgin (2009) conducted a phenomenological research study on learning experiences of
the children at Internet cafes. The results of the study show that children have positive attitude towards
gaming when learning a new word, taking responsibility and guiding the character they choose to make a
conversation. Another study is on the role of cell phones video recording feature as a learning tool, which is
conducted by Gromik (2012). The findings related to the questionnaires show that participants believe that
video recording feature presents a good activity, but cannot be transferred into another lesson.
Educators begin to use Web 2.0 technologies in order to create more interactive and dynamic
learning experiences. Amir, İsmail and Hussin (2011) note that blogs are good examples for students to
express themselves as members of large learning communities and it is also good for their written
expressions, enhancing language learning. In another study Daneshdoust and Keshmiri (2012) touch upon
the advantages and disadvantages of internet based language learning with respect to 120 teachers’ views.
The results indicate the advantages of internet based language learning are openness, learning autonomy,
stimulating interests of learners in language learning and strengthening learners’ learning autonomy. The
disadvantages are that learning process has a chaos, learners do not have enough self-control and abilities of
teachers cannot meet the needs of learners.
With a general outlook on the descriptive studies, it can be said that participants develop positive
attitude towards technology integration during language learning (Sunga & Yeh 2012; Mahmoudia, Samad
and Abdul-Razak, 2012), reduce their learning anxiety and feel confident (Cacciatore, 2010), motivated
(Hsu, 2005), live out the joy of learning (Yang and Chen, 2007) and that the process encourage them (Wik
and Hjalmarsson, 2009).
Experimental Studies
Dreyer (2003) conducted a study to examine the effectiveness the strategies for language teaching
within the context of a new course at a state university in Africa. A must course named Professional
Purposes is used for enhancing reading and literacy strategies. The results of the study show that
experimental group students’ scores related to transferring their strategies was higher than the control group
students scores who attend traditional course. In another study on CALL, Rahimi and Hosseini (2011)
investigated Iranian high school students’ attitudes towards learning English and effectiveness of English
learning process through CALL activities. The results show that attitudes and the intervention had provided
evidence for a significant difference between the traditional practice. Another study is on Web-Based
Language Learning (WBLL), which is conducted by Gorjian (2012) investigates the effects of WBLL and
paper based approaches on Iranian students’ foreign language learning. 12 explanatory texts were presented
for students each week and at the end of 12 weeks, a post test was implemented. The results show that
WBLL enhances retention beter in comparison with the paper based intervention group.
When the experimental studies are reviewed, it is understood that models developed for learning
promotes students’ self-efficacy (Baltrus, 2003), web based learning models are better for achievement than
in traditional models (Yusofa and Saadon, 2012). The synchronous computer-mediated communication
(SCMC) system developed by Yamada (2009), a speaking system developed by Wang, Waple, Kawahora
(2009) and DTW algorithm developed by Arias, Yoma and Vivanco (2010) affected student achievement
positively. Also digital storytelling applications (Connolly, 2008), game-like environments (Berns,
Gonzalez-Pordo) are good examples for enhancing students’ motivation and reducing anxiety.
Exploratory Studies
Lin, Lee and Chen (2004) conducted a study on the role of ICT use on teaching experiences of
Chinese teachers. 12 interviews were made and a web forum was used for collecting data. The views of
teachers were separated into three categories namely reading comprehension, developing skills and written
expression. In another study Habernal and Konopik (2013) describe their effort to move towards the
interaction provided by semantic search engines using currently available technology. Within the context of
Semantic Web Search Using Natural Language (SWSNL) system, the researchers cover the complete
process which includes preprocessing, semantic analysis, semantic interpretation, and executing a SPARQL
query to retrieve the results. They perform an end-to-end evaluation on a domain dealing with
accommodation options. The domain data come from an existing accommodation portal and we use a
corpus of queries obtained by a Facebook campaign and researchers reporte that they struggled with
inconsistencies in the actual Web data, with the performance of the Semantic Web engines on a decently
sized knowledge base, and others.
The exploratory studies report online platforms (Ortiz, Sanz and Siqueira, 2011; Yang and Lin,
2010) and emphasize on the different roles of MALL in the technology integration process (Tai, Ting,
2011), by the use of Oovo, Skype, Wikis and Youtube (Hashami, Azizinezhad, 2011; PapadimaSophocleous, 2012; Juhary, 2012). The results of the studies show that the use of these technologies as free,
basic and easy tools increase usability, and hardware and software conditions should be made better for a
successful technology integration.
Discussion and Concluding Remarks
The studies reviewed are generally related to TELL, CALL, Internet-Based Language Teaching
(IBLT), MALL and Web-Based Language Learning (WBLL). Within the scope of these studies, Web 2.0
technologies, mobil devices, interactive tools, embodied conversational agents (ECAs), web based
environments and online games are taken into account, regarding to student achievement, perceptions and
attitudes, which are three common variables.
Despite the reality that teaching and learning a language is strongly based on speaking, reading and
listening, almost all of the studies address speaking, reading and written expression. Çelenk (1999) points
out that listening is an essential, teachable and learnable skill in language learning and should not be
separated from the learning process. Therefore, one of the important issues raised from this study is there is
a lack of the studies on listening skills and comprehension through listening.
The research show that most of the studies are descriptive, which are based on reporting the views
of participants and current state of the issues related to TELL, take little consideration of the effects of the
technological tools or the technology integration process. This also shows that emerging technologies can
not yet take specific roles in the applications of language learning and the current literature. As a matter of
fact, there are limited experimental and design-based research studies. Also as Tamim, Bernard,
Borokhovski, Abrami and Schmid (2011) pointed out, the experimental studies here mostly focused on
comparing technology with “no technology”. Given there are various technological systems like virtual
learning environments, conversional agents, mobile applications etc., it can be said that there is a lack of
specific research studies on technology enhanced language learning.
In this study we have reviewed some of the theory and research related to technology enhanced
language learning, and the study is an attempt to point out some of the issues that seem to be absent in
related literature. Researchers are suggested to take new alternatives regarding the use of brand new
technologies and conduct experimental studies in order not to lose actuality.
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