The Expulsion of The Acadians
By
Jake Cavanagh
201004535
Term Essay
Presented to Dr. Cameron
History 213
Pre Confederation Canadian History
Department of History
St. Francis Xavier University
October 29, 2013
The Expulsion of the Acadians was orchestrated by the British, beginning in 1755. It consisted
of the forced removal of the non-compliant Acadian people who resided on their land. The vast
majority of the Acadian people were of French descent, making them an obvious threat and issue of
concern for the British. Whats worse, is that the initial Acadian inhabitants who were not of French
origin consisted of bad tempered Scots and Irish.1 The ownership of Acadia had switched between the
British and French empire several times before Britain maintained a firm hold on it, however the threat
of an invasion from France was always a concern. Despite Britain's continuous efforts to absorb the
Acadians into her Empire, their uncertain allegiances and ignorance being unable to accept the Imperial
reality which now governed their land led to their necessary, deserved deportation.
It was settlers from France who first settled Acadia. The name itself stems from the french word
“La 'Cadie.”2 European nations were in the process of exploring and inhabiting North America at this
time, with both Britain and France having a sense of exclusive entitlement over Acadia, which included
Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and part of Maine. Conflict between the two
nations became inevitable, when in 1621 James I of England granted the right to colonize Nova Scotia
to Sir William Alexander.3 The English disregarded the Acadian presence, though didn't seriously
pursue dominance of Nova Scotia for many years.
The allure of colonizing Nova Scotia was driven purely from an imperialistic desire from both
England and France. The Acadian land was extremely rich in natural resources which had much to offer
to both European nations, such as fur trading, large sized timber, cod, salmon, oyster, and lobster
fishing as well as the later discovery of coal mines.4 Acadians for the most part seemed to want to self
sustain and form their own society in Acadia, which serves as somewhat of a prelude to the immense
discrepancies they held in terms of imperial colonization and war. Although many historians will argue
Naomi Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People (Toronto: Mcgraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 1977) 2.
Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People, 3.
3
Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People, 10.
4
Bona Arsenault. History of the Acadians. Quebec: Le Conseil de la vie francaise, en Amerique, 1966.
1
2
that the Acadians were treated unfairly, or even inhumanely, research shows that not only did the
British act appropriately, but showed far more leniency towards the Acadians for longer than any
superpower ever should during a time of struggle and uncertainty.
The British and Acadians would engage each other in battle many times before what would
become Nova Scotia became part of the British Empire. Much of the 17th century involved the English
fighting the French, and therefor the Acadians within Acadia. The English were unsuccessful in
conquering The Beaubassin in 1704, as well as their perceived redemption attack on Port-Royal in
1707.5 Acadians made up a sizable portion of the defending French in both of these battles, putting to
rest any misconception that the Acadians and British had no prior hostilities which may lead to
suspicions. The British finally prevailed in the Raid of Vetch in 1710, effectively changing Port-Royal
to Annapolis Royal, and Acadia to Nova Scotia. This change was officially solidified in 1713 with the
Treaty of Utrecht.6
With the Treaty of Utrecht, Acadians were given the option of leaving Nova Scotia within a
year, or staying, and being subject to the Kingdom of Great Britain. Also, they could remain Roman
Catholic, however be subject to British law, which excluded Catholics from politics.7 The Acadians
graciously accepted this option, an option which proved to cause the English Nova Scotian government
a continuous headache for forty years. Despite the fact Acadians would state their fidelity to the
English King, they insisted on a position of neutrality in regards to the hostility between Britain and
France.
In 1713, the Acadians secretly hoped that France would once again become the ruling European
power over what is now Nova Scotia.8 One cannot blame the Acadians for this, obviously a people
would feel more comfortable having leaders who share their religion, language, and to some degree
Arsenault, History of the Acadians, 66.
Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People, 17.
7
Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People, 20.
8
Arsenault, History of the Acadians, 79.
5
6
culture. It is however proof, that as the prevailing nation, British authorities made a mistake allowing
the Acadians to remain in their territory. The English overestimated the Acadians' willingness to take an
oath of loyalty to Queen Anne, and failed in delivering repercussions for their refusal to do so. In 1713,
Some of the Acadians offered an oath, under the conditions that their religion was respected, and they
would not be required to fight the French or Indians in the case of war.9 Governor Phillips rightfully
denied that as unacceptable.
It is difficult to fathom the mindset of the British government, as even this early in the
relationship between the English and Acadians it is clear they have preference to France. At such an
uncertain time period, where France poses a near constant threat to the security of Nova Scotia, it is
unclear how they would allow the Acadians to remain for so long while outright admitting they will not
defend the colony against the Kingdom's main enemy. The British seemingly just turned a blind eye to
the Acadian's lack of loyalty, and internal French nationalism, even when evidence began to build.
Until 1749, the English barely had 200 troops stationed in Nova Scotia.10 Louisburg was built in
the 1720s, although this was during a time of peace, tensions and potential for aggression was always
there. English-Indian battles took place around Acadian lands, with no aid or show of loyalty coming
from the behalf of the Acadians. If anything, the Acadians blatantly demonstrated their lack of loyalty
to the Crown through many venues. By the end of the 1920s, Acadians were a major supply line to
France's Fort Louisburg in Cape Breton. They were supplying 600-700 cattle and 2000 sheep annually
to the French at Louisburg.11
In addition to this, the Acadians were reluctant to pay the British taxes. They link their
reasoning to the oath of allegiance, and their supposed right to own property. 12 Governor Phillips was
not near tough enough, nor diligent enough to pick up on the atrocious embarrassments the Acadians
Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People, 26.
Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People, 28.
11
Regis Brun. The Acadians before 1755. (Moncton: Imprimerie Cormier Cocagne), 2005, 26.
12
Brun, The Acadians before 1755, 21.
9
10
were causing the Crown, right under his nose. How does a leader from the most successful imperialistic
nation in history allow such utter lack of respect and continuous questioning of his authority? From the
beginning, Phillips should have made it very clear that their ability to stay in Nova Scotia was a very
generous privilege that came with the obvious expectation of conformity and loyalty to the British law.
The Acadians show complete disrespect and ignorance throughout the duration they are under British
rule, to the point it would be laughable if it weren't so embarrassing the earliest Nova Scotian politician
was such a pushover. Had a more powerful leader been in place, the Acadians likely would have been
deported before 1755.
1941 marks the end of English-French peace as the War of Austrian Succession puts the rivals
at each other's throats once again.13 The Acadians once again show no support for the British, once
again claiming their “neutral” stance, and once again Phillips allowing it. Louisburg offers the
Acadians better prices for their trade goods, which prompts them to refuse supply to Annapolis and
Halifax to meet Louisburg's demand.14 Thankfully, with the end of the 40s brought a new governor of
Nova Scotia.
In 1949 Cornwallis became the governor of the Nova Scotia colony. He quickly makes it
known to the Acadians that they must take an unconditional oath of allegiance, like all of Britain's other
citizens as is required by law.15 As is to be expected, the Acadians stalled for time, assuming that
Cornwallis was no different than Phillips. After 40 years of getting away with it, its rather easy to
understand why they do not sense much urgency in the issue. Unfortunately, before Cornwallis has time
to put his efforts into condemning the Acadians, two Indian tribes allied with France formally declare
war on the English in Nova Scotia.16 Cornwallis receives reports of the enemy Indians being seen
within Acadian villages, assumingly receiving hospitality. Whether this was forced upon the Acadians
Arsenault, History of the Acadians, 100.
Brun, The Acadians before 1755, 45.
15
Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People, 40.
16
Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People, 43.
13
14
or not, they certainly had options of informing the English. The Acadian position became blatantly
further away from their proclaimed neutrality.
In 1750, the English find Acadians fighting alongside the French.17 Cornwallis is told that these
people were threatened with their lives to join the side of France, and seemingly believes this for the
most part. The question that he should have raised, would be instead of running to the French side, why
not flee to the English lines, and join their supposed countrymen in battle against their national enemy.
Further damage to the credibility of their claims is the fact thousands of Acadians migrated to French
controlled territory beginning in 1949. On August 15, 1750, the missionary Leloutre announced that
hundreds of Acadian families arrived in French territory. He takes it further and states that these
Acadians will fight with their lives, that these families will supply over 1000 men to bear arms against
the English.18
Suspicions and tensions begin to reach an all new, long overdue height between the English and
Acadians. Lieutenant Governor Lawrence states in a letter that he believes Nova Scotia would fare
better without the Acadian presence. Furthermore, he acknowledges the probability that if told to leave,
they would likely go join the Indians adding to the enemy's numbers.19 In 1755 tensions are also
coming to a climax with France, England issues orders to destroy any french ship encountered, in
response France sends 3,000 soldiers to North America, bringing the Seven Years War to North
America.20 After the fall of Beausejour, the English discover 200 Acadians defending the fort on behalf
of France.21 This was seemingly the final straw, as guns and boats are confiscated from the Acadians to
prevent their ability to aid France. Acadian deputies send Memorials to the Lieutenant Governor,
insisting they return their weapons and boats, and once again trying to convince the government of
their English loyalty. Lawrence is Governor of Nova Scotia at this point, and had become beyond fed
17
Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People, 44.
Arsenault, History of the Acadians, 113.
19
Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People, 50.
20
Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People, 51.
21
Griffith, The Acadians: Creation of A People, 52.
18
up with the Acadian's behaviour
In these provisions they insist they've remained loyal despite “solicitations” and threats from
another power. Furthermore, they claim to have never transported provisions to Beausejour, and blame
any wrongdoing on rogue inhabitants, not Acadians as a whole. When requesting the need for their
guns, the deputies bring up the possibility the “savages” may become a threat to them.22 This is very
suspicious considering their history of claimed neutrality, and likely served as an awakening to the
Nova Scotia Council. The Council called the deputies to Halifax, where they went over their
Memorials paragraph by paragraph, explaining their displeasure with its' contents. In regards to the
Acadian claims of complete fidelity to His Majesty are countered by the council with accusations of
assisting the Indians and French leading to the deaths of Englishmen.23
The Council continues to uncloak the Acadian's seemingly innocent requests. In regards to their
canoes, the Acadians claim they need them for fishing and moving goods. The Council responds by
saying they are aware they want their canoes to move provisions to the enemy, and that any boat found
with provisions is confiscated. Furthermore, on the claim they need their guns for protection of their
livestock, and their own family safety, the English shut them down hard. The Council explained that as
Roman Catholics, they have no right to bear arms under British law. They further show their suspicion
by voicing their scepticism over how when the Acadians voluntarily brought their guns to Captain
Murray, none of them had pretended they needed them for defence of their cattle. They conclude saying
that they have discovered the Acadians fidelity to the King is false, and they are willing to join France
following any sign of assistance.24
Further into this dialogue, the Council gives them the option to prove their obedience, by
22
Akins, Thomas B, ed., Acadia and Nova Scotia: Documents Relating to the Acadian French and the First British
Colonization of the Province 1714-1758. (Halifax, 1870), 247-57. 71.
23
Akins, Acadia and Nova Scotia: Documents Relating to the Acadian French and the First British Colonization of the
Province 1714-1758. 72.
24
Acadia and Nova Scotia: Documents Relating to the Acadian French and the First British Colonization of the Province
1714-1758. 76.
immediately taking the Oath of Allegiance in the Common Form before the Council. Taken aback, they
claim they weren't prepared for such a commitment, before being reminded by the Council that this has
come up plenty over the past six years only to be stalled upon. They requested to go back to their
communities and discuss this, the English refused, and stated they must personally make the Oath,
regardless of their village. After a recess, the deputies came back, saying they would only take the same
oath they always had, avoiding bearing arms with the French and Indians. The Council refused, and
informed them they were to be removed from the province. The Acadians squeamishly attempt to
backtrack and agree to the Oath, but the Council intelligently states it would be insincere.25
This primary document shows just how lenient the previous governing bodies of Nova Scotia
had been with these two-faced French inhabitants. Perhaps without the ease of access to information in
the 18th century the evidence wasn't so overwhelming to the Nova Scotia Government, but countless
sources show Acadian discontent with English rule, and aspirations to join the French empire once
again. The statements in the Memorials were insulting to the Nova Scotia Council's intelligence, and
their feeble attempt to suck up by addressing the council as if it were a divine deity certainly did not
add to their legitimacy.
In a letter to the Board of Trade, Governor Lawrence briefs his superiors on French military
movement, as well as diplomacy standings with an Indian tribe. The majority of the letter however, is
detailing the events which took place between the Acadian deputies and the Nova Scotian Council. He
concludes with his determination to either bring the Acadians into compliance, or remove them from
the province.26 Through Lawrence's choice of words, its clear that he has little interest in keeping the
Acadians around.
Historian C. Bruce Fergusson identifies the deepest problem which plagued the British and
Acadian relationship was the Acadian's inability to take the oath. He makes it clear that it was common
25
Acadia and Nova Scotia: Documents Relating to the Acadian French and the First British Colonization of the Province
1714-1758. 77.
26
Akins. Acadia and Nova Scotia, 259-60: Governor Lawrence to Board of Trade, 18 July 1755.
knowledge in the 18th century that living within a state required taking an oath of allegiance.27 In his
article he presents the ironic fact that, in 1763 this Oath was taken by the French not only in Canada,
but Louisiana as well.
Charles D. Mahaffie Jr attempts to belittle the British decision to deport the Acadians in his
article, “Acadia from its Beginning to the Expulsion of its People 1604-1755.” The way he writes when
explaining the British' reasoning for the deportation attempts to depict them as childish and
unprovoked.
“They had helped the king's enemies in the last war. Now they wanted boats so they could help them
again. And as Catholics they had no right to guns in the first place.”28
The short, choppy structure of these sentences aim to undermine the intelligence and reasoning
of the English government. Mahaffie's decision to exclude the readily available details pertaining to his
oversimplified sentences show extreme bias, and leads one to the conclusion his article was formed
from his emotions rather than intellectual thought. This is quickly confirmed as he depicts the Acadians
as stunned victims a Council of British Bullies, being coerced into swearing an oath of allegiance. He
doesn't mention that this had been an issue for more than forty years, the last six in particular. The
article goes on far too long with the intentions of leading the reader to believe the deportation was
unnecessary, but uses few facts and banks on emotion's through sad stories to sway the reader to his
direction.
People seem to have trouble seeing the issue of the deportation of the Acadians through a first
person perspective. The Acadians were previous enemies, living within British lines during wartime.
27
Fergusson, C. Bruce. “The Expulsion of the Acadians.” In Interpreting Canada's Past: A Pre Confederation Reader.
Mahaffie Jr, Charles D. A Land of Discord Always: Acadia from its Beginning to the Expulsion of its People 1604-1755.
In Interpreting Canada's Past: A Pre Confederation Reader.
28
Furthermore, after years of exhausting efforts to simply have these people swear an Oath to the Crown,
they refused, causing obvious suspicion. As tensions came to climax between the French and English,
the smoke cleared around the Acadians and their efforts to aid the enemy became increasingly
prevalent.
Of course not every Acadian family was involved in, or had the desire to support France and aid
them in reconquering Nova Scotia. The tough thing for people to realize is enough of them seemed to
be, in one way or another. In times of war, leaders need to set their conscience aside and realize they
are making decisions that will impact the lives of those under their command. Lawrence was
undoubtedly aware that the majority of the people he was deporting were of no real threat to his
civilians and soldiers. He was, however, aware that some of them were, and if moving a “neutral”
community elsewhere even has the potential to save some of the lives hes responsible for, while
progressing the English war effort, it must be done.
Internment or relocation is a fact of war. For success, all precautions and preventive measures
must be exercised. Its not a century old concept, either. Canada sent Japanese Canadians to internment
camps during World War II, it was beyond reasonable doubt that some of these immigrants, still loyal
to Japan, would relay sensitive information back home.
The deportation of the Acadians should no longer be seen as a dark point of Canadian History.
In reality, it was part of the final war fought between the British and France, which resulted in the
favourable outcome of British success in Canada. It is uncertain if history would have turned out
differently had the Acadians not been deported. In Nova Scotia alone, between six and seven thousand
were deported, had the French been able to recruit the men, Britain could have potentially lost Nova
Scotia. The Acadians had been given countless opportunities to become part of the British Empire. The
reluctance of the Acadians to provide Britain with their Oath of Allegiance, coupled with documented
collaboration with France led to their inevitable, justified deportation from British North America from
1755-1763
Bibliography
Arsenault, Bona. History of the Acadians. Quebec: Le Conseil de la vie francaise, en Amerique, 1966.
Brun, Regis. The Acadians before 1755. Moncton: Imprimerie Cormier Cocagne, 2005.
Griffiths, Naomi. The Acadians: Creation of a People. Toronto: Mcgaw-hill Ryerson Limited, 1973.
Akins, Thomas B, ed., Acadia and Nova Scotia: Documents Relating to the Acadian French and the
First British Colonization of the Province 1714-1758. (Halifax, 1870), 247-57.
Akins. Acadia and Nova Scotia, 259-60: Governor Lawrence to Board of Trade, 18 July 1755.
Fergusson, C. Bruce. “The Expulsion of the Acadians.” In Interpreting Canada's Past: A PreConfederation Reader.
Mahaffie Jr, Charles D. A Land of Discord Always: Acadia from its Beginning to the Expulsion of its
People 1604-1755. In Interpreting Canada's Past: A Pre Confederation Reader.
Lockerby, Earle. “The Deportation of the Acadians from Ile St-Jean, 1758.” In Interpreting Canada's
Past: A Pre Confederation Reader.