Methods of Data Collection
Physical and Mental Factors
Analyse
Descriptions
Compare
Contrast
Examine
Validity and reliability
Explain
Identify
Categorise
Restrictions and Limitations
Investigate
Contents page
Page 2
Data collection methods for mental and physical factors.
Page3
Overview of the factors affecting Information gathering.
Page 4
Rules of data gathering
Page 5 – 7 Description, Advantages and limitations of video analysis and
observation schedules for skill repertoire.
Page 8
Description, advantages and Limitations of coaching feedback
Page 9
Description, advantages and Limitations of Scatter graphs
Page 10-11 Description, advantages and limitations of recognised fitness
tests - focus on agility.
Page 12
Description, advantages and limitations of a mental toughness
questionnaire.
Page 13-14 Description, advantages and limitations of a self-reflection sheet.
Page 14-15 Description, advantages and limitations of a decision making
observation schedule or scatter graph.
Factors Impacting Performance
Data Collection
Physical
 Video Analysis
 Observation
Schedules
 Scatter Diagrams
 Coach Feedback
 Fitness Tests
Initial data Skills (Stroke
Repertoire Observation
Schedule)
Focussed data
Skills(Technique Analysis
Observation Schedule)
Mental
 Mental toughness
Questionnaire
 Decision Making
Observation
Schedule
 Personal
Reflection Sheet
Factors Affecting Information Gathering
Type of game/Practice
Results will vary
depending on the type of
game/practice that you
are involved in and the
level of ability of your
opponent.
(a) Repetition practice is an easy
form of practice because there is
more time and space, practice is
predicatable and there is little
pressure. This will give good
results but are probably unrealistic.
(b) Games with conditioned rallies
will be more difficult. There is less
time, more pressure, more space to
cover and rallies are unpredicatble.
Results will be variable but can be
considered more accurate and
more realisitc.
(c) Playing a player of poorer
standard can give misleading
results, this will give the wrong
perception of your ability. It is
more realistic to measure your
progress against a player of similar
ability or slightly better to allow
players to play to full potential.
Effort Levels
(a) If you work to full
capacity your results will
be realistic therefore you
should be motivated,
disciplained and
enthusiastic to measure
your success.
(b) Can you rely upon your
friends to work in a similar
way as yourself? e.g in
their attempts to help
with practices and when
they act as opposition
during data collection and
competitive matches etc.
Co-operation of friends Ability to assimilate
information (Analyse
and availability of
and evaluate)
Equipment
(a) Are friends competent and
accurate in their attempts to
record court charts/tally
charts etc. Do you value their
opinion for feedback? If they
have activity experience more
reliable and valid informatio
can be obtained because they
know exactly what they are
looking for as they observe
the performance. They
understand the criteria and
are clear in their role of what
they have been asked to do.
(b) Is the playing environment
conducive to good play? Do
you have access to quality
equipment and facilities for
each assessment. Many sports
are fast paced and the playing
surface different and the area
to cover large.
(c)Do you have access to ipads
as required to aid analysis?
Are you able to do the
following:
(a) Correlate
court/cluster/tally charts.
Can you identify patterns
of success and failure in
your performance and
compare and contrast
your performance with
that of an appropriate role
model.
(b)Has the format of a
schedule got too much
information which is
difficult to interpret? This
will lead to confusion on
the observer’s behalf,
leading to results which
are more likely to be
unreliable.
(c)) Seek advice from
teachers and friends and
accept weaknesses and
don't be afraid of initial
failures.
Gathering Data in Sports
In order to establish if learning has taken place we need to gather data. As learning itself cannot be
observed, the results of learning can. Data gathering about changes to our performance can indicate that
learning and skill refinement has taken place.
In order for data to be useful it must be
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Accurate (True Reflection)
Relevant (to performer and activity)
Valid (Measures what it should)
Reliable (Consistent)
Objective (Non bias)
Comparative (Enables comparison)
Objective Data
This type of information is based on facts. For example, Ronaldo has scored 89% of the penalties that he has taken
this year. Another example might be that during a game of netball the centre player successfully passed the ball to a
team mate 75% of the time. Overtime these facts can be used to identify performance improvements. For example,
after a week of practising the netball player successfully completed 78% of passes.
The information collected objectively can be measured allowing more accurate judgements to be made in relation to
performance development. It is designed to establish differences, relationships or causality (does one thing
cause another?) Throughout the course you will get the opportunity to work with different objective methods.
Subjective Data
This type of information is gathered through personal feelings , emotions or opinions. The data is collected from
personal or observer’s interpretations – they offer their own point of view. For example, you might comment on a
player’s performance in badminton by suggesting that they don’t move fluently around the court. Another example
could be that when playing basketball you felt that there was a player who was not as determined as you to win.
PHYSICAL FACTOR
Sub Factor: Skill Repertoire (Data Collection)
Method 1: Video Analysis
Video analysis, a commonly used tool in modern sports, can provide a training boost for individual and team
competitions. Coaches and trainers analyse video from live competitive action and training exercises, and the
results of their careful analysis provide helpful feedback for the athletes. Thanks to video analysis, athletes can gain
a competitive edge, correct faults and maximize their strengths.
Why appropriate?
Advantages
Footage can be slowed down or paused to observe sub routines in more detail to highlight strengths and
faults in performance.
When recorded in an open, competitive environment you can find trends and patterns you can change. A
basketball team may be vulnerable defensively on the outside, a golfer may hook his iron shots or a
badminton player may lack power in their clears. Once the weak link is discovered, it can be modified and
improved upon.
If footage is taken during training, you can help prevent injury and new injuries. The technique you use to
play shots and move round the court is a contributing factor in sustaining an injury. With video analysis,
you can study your technique and pinpoint areas that must be changed to avoid injuring yourself in the
future.
It is a permanent record which allows you to compare at a later date to monitor progress.
Vital source of visual feedback which paints a picture of stage of learning and provides motivation.
Using video footage of a model. One way that using video analysis can help improve your performance is to
watch the best in your sport play the game. Studying hours of video of the best player at your position or in
your sport will showcase habits the player uses on a regular basis that help him succeed. When you have
pinpointed some of the techniques of the best players, you can work them into your own game.
One of the most common ways video analysis is used is to prepare for upcoming opponents. Watching
footage of next week’s opponent teaches you their strengths and weaknesses, and enables you to formulate
a game plan to deal with them. Mental preparation is an important factor in badminton, so knowing what
you’re up against beforehand can give you an extra advantage.
Badminton is such a fast paced sport and almost impossible for an observer to record all shots on a tally
sheet (Observation schedule). Through utilizing video analysis at the same time it can increase the validity of
results and ensure information is not omitted to provide a clear picture on performance.
Limitations of Video Analysis
Can you always
guarantee that the i
pad will be available.
Lighting might be poor
which impacts the
quality of your results.
The space and angle of
the Camera can be an
issue to get all the action
in.
It can take time to
collate results.
Collating the results
and analysing what is
in front of a
performer can be
difficult. Can they
recognise and accept
issues in their
performance? This
might be impacted
by activity
experience and
knowledge.
Method 2: Observation Schedules
Observation schedules can be used to identify faults and following a
period of practice to monitor progress. Observation schedules can
be completed during open play and in a practice setting in a more
controlled environment.
In badminton a stroke repertoire observation schedule is completed to collect initial data on the strengths
and weaknesses when executing performance skills. This involves playing 3 sets against an opponent of
equal ability whilst an observer records the effectiveness of each shot during the match. This can be
adapted to observe movement patterns and tactics to provide a holistic view of the physical factor.
Often more focussed observation schedules are completed to focus specifically on sub routines of a
particular skill. In badminton, Techniques analysis observation schedules are completed to focus on key
technical components of a skill to identify any faults which are impacting skill execution. This is generally
completed in a repetition style practice (feeder drill) environment which is closed to allow for effective
assessment to be made. A model performer is firstly observed to gain set criteria and a visual picture. As
many feeds as necessary are then played to the appropriate location on the court to compare the
performer to the success criteria of a model.
Why appropriate?
1. The written format provides a permanent record that allows for comparison at a later date.
2. Having an observer it provides objective feedback which is non-bias providing more accurate
results.
3. By playing in a competitive match against someone of equal ability you are forced to play your full
range of shots adding to the validity of the findings as the pressurised situation can highlight
consistency.
4. By completing the schedule over a sustained period of time patterns of play can be observed. It is
also possible to see dips in form. The more information the more vivid the picture on performance.
Occasionally, a player takes longer to get into the match. This duration provides them the
opportunity to do this.
5. All tally marks can be converted into statistics which are hard to argue with.
6. Strengths and weaknesses can be identified from the schedule which future performance
development programmes and goal setting can be based upon.
7. Focussed observation schedules allow you to compare the mechanics to that of a model which
motivates and inspires progress.
8. Objective feedback by a person with activity knowledge ensures validity and reliability of the results
to create a detailed analysis of performance.
9. Focussed observation schedules enable performers to identify faults and set training priorities to
support development of these flaws.
Limitations with Observation Schedules
1. When you have someone else recording information on performance the validity of the results are
dependent on the observers focus and attention during the match and the importance they place on the
process. Also, if they are lacking activity knowledge their perception of what equals an effective shot might
be different from the reality.
2. Badminton is a very fast paced sport and there is likely to be a number of shots in every rally. This can make
it impossible for one observer to record all shots played. When they take their eye of the match to complete
the schedule shots are missed questioning the reliability of the findings.
3. If the opposition is not of a similar ability this will provide false results and a performer might not be forced
to play their full range of shots if insufficient pressure is applied.
4. The content of the observation schedule has to be correct in the first place to focus on key elements of
performance and allow for detailed observations.
5. The mental and emotional state of the performer is crucial if accurate results are to be collected. Lack of
motivation, resilience, and anxiety etc will impact the quality of shots, decisions, concentration and
technique. If a performer is over tired, hungry etc this will impact their play and ultimately the results.
6. Focussed observations completed in a closed environment although they provide lots of clear information it
might not be realistic. For example in badminton often a player is coming from a different point on the court
every time to play a clear in a game and with less time to prepare. In a feeder drill you have extra time and
less pressure and it is therefore not replicating game situations.
Method 3: Coaching Feedback
Information offered at various points in a
performance or in practice.
Appropriate/ advantages
This allows a performer to adapt their
performance immediately to bring about
performance improvements and can prevent
bad habits surfacing.
Limitations
Often noise can impact the coaches ability to
provide quality verbal feedback
making the information less accurate as
performers struggle to hear what is being said.
Focusses the performer and can be a source of
positivity and motivation.
Sometimes the coach is restricted by when
they can get information to the performer
which can be too late and have impacted
performance dramatically before this
information can be relayed. Also the time has
passed and it is not as relevant to a performer
as it would have been at the time.
If feedback is provided consistently during
practice it will allow for brisk progress and
result in a performer going into a competitive
environment with confidence and better
listening skills. Coaches can give clearer
information away from the pressurised
environment giving the performer a better
understanding of how to develop performance.
Several point of information only
Positive and negative balance
This directs a performer’s attention to key points of
technique or performance and lets them make
corrections quickly.
A balance of positive and negative feedback keeps
the performer motivated and encourages them to
practice.
Unfortunately, when a performer is under pressure
this feedback is less effective and their brain can be
overloaded and they are unable to take this
information in and listen.
When breaks are brief it can be difficult for coaches
to focus on only several points when there is a lot
that they can talk about and they want to make this
time count.
It is difficult to balance the feedback when a
performer is having a dip in performance and form.
They themselves will be aware of their failings and
if you focus only on the issues you risk losing the
performer and motivation to train and compete will
be impossible to achieve. Always being positive
could make a performer arrogant and they need
targets etc to keep on track.
Method 4: Scatter Graphs
Scatter graphs are frequently used to identify the flight path of
an object or the movement patterns of a performer. If you look at
the picture to your right it details the placement of first serves in
tennis and indicates which service placement was most effective in
securing an ace.
A court diagram observation schedule is frequently used in badminton. A performer plays 2 sets against an
opponent of equal ability. At the same time an observer sits at the side and observers the connection
point and outcome of each shot on the court.
Advantages of Scatter graphs
 A court diagram observation schedule again is objective feedback and recorded by someone else
other than the performer. This prevents bias assessments on performance.
 A court diagram tells us specific, relevant information regarding the flightpath and outcome of
shots. This is not highlighted on a technique analysis giving a more holistic view of performance
and details accuracy and consistency of placement.
 Again this information can be converted into hard facts (Stats) which can be used to monitor
progress ( % increase) following a period of training.
 Scatter graphs are recorded in a competitive match which pressurises movements and decision
making. This increases the reliability of results as performers have little time to prepare reflecting
true conditions.
Limitations with Scatter graphs
 If analysing more than one skill again this can be difficult for a solo observer to record all shots in
such a fast paced sport reducing the quantity and validity of the findings.
 The scatter graph on its own is very limited in the information it provides but is a useful tool when
used to reinforce the findings of other observations.
 If the observer is not precise when plotting shots and cannot distinguish between their lefts and
rights it can lead to inaccurate findings.
PHYSICAL FACTOR
Sub Factor: Agility
Method 1: Recognised fitness Tests
In constructing tests it is important to make sure that they really measure the factors required to be
tested, and are thus objective rather than subjective. In doing so all tests should therefore be specific
(designed to assess an athlete's fitness for the activity in question), valid (the degree to which the test
actually measures what it claims to measure), reliable (capable of consistent repetition) and objective
(produce a consistent result irrespective of the tester).
In conducting tests the following points should be considered:
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Each test should measure ONE factor only
The test should not require any technical competence on the part of the athlete (unless it is being
used to assess technique)
Care should be taken to make sure that the athlete understands exactly what is required of
him/her, what is being measured and why
The test procedure should be strictly standardised in terms of administration, organisation and
environmental conditions
Illinois Agility test
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The athlete warms up for 10 minutes
The assistance sets up the course as detailed in the
diagram. (10 by 5m grid)
The athlete lies face down on the floor at the “Start”
cone
The assistant gives the command “GO” and starts the
stopwatch.
The athlete jumps to his/her feet and negotiates the
course around the cones following the route shown in
the diagram to the finish
The assistant stops the stopwatch and records the time
when the athlete passes the “Finish” cone
3 attempts are made and the best recorded
Normative data for the Illinois Agility Run Test
The following are national norms for 16 to 19 year olds (Davis et al. 2000) [1]:
Gender
Excellent
Above Average
Average
Below Average
Poor
Male
<15.2 secs
15.2 - 16.1 secs
16.2 - 18.1 secs
18.2 - 19.3 secs
>19.3 secs
Female
<17.0 secs
17.0 - 17.9 secs
18.0 - 21.7 secs
21.8 - 23.0 secs
>23.0 secs
Appropriateness of recognised fitness tests
 The use of Standardised Fitness Tests can give you clear information about the relevant
components of fitness that you are trying to measure and therefore acts as a fitness indicator
(identifies strengths and weaknesses in fitness).
 Also, the use of norms allows you to compare your score with those of the same age and gender
around the world (valid and reliable results due to test conditions being standardised).
 Recognised fitness testing can also be used for monitoring progress during a fitness training
programme, gauging when adaptations to training are necessary and to evaluate any
improvements at the end of the plan of action acting as a motivator.
 They only measure one factor i.e agility so are objective rather than subjective.
 Capable of consistent repetitions due to test conditions resulting in more valid.
 Very simple to administer and very little equipment required.
 Can be used to measure a performer’s ability to turn in different directions, and different angles.
Limitations with Fitness testing
What factors may influence test results?
The following factors may have an impact on the results of a test (test reliability):
 Although you gain vital statistical information it does only give you a score and does not highlight
the impact of agility in a competitive sport under pressure. (Specific movement patterns)
 A performer may be unable to distinguish between left and right turning gates which reduces time
and validity of the results.
 Results can be subject to timing inconsistencies.
 The main problem with agility tests is they identify how quick a player moves around obstacles or between
two or three different cones. They don’t identify how a player reacts to a stimulus that actually occurs in the
game. A good football player therefore may do well in a badminton agility test, but that doesn’t mean he can
play badminton!
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The ambient temperature, noise level and humidity
The amount of sleep the athlete had prior to testing
The athlete's emotional state
Medication the athlete may be taking
The time of day
The athlete's caffeine intake
The time since the athlete's last meal
The test environment - surface (track, grass, road, gym)
The athlete's prior test knowledge/experience
Accuracy of measurements (times, distances etc.)
Is the athlete actually applying maximum effort in maximal tests
Inappropriate warm up
People present
The personality, knowledge and skill of the tester
Athlete's clothing/shoes
Surface on which the test is conducted
Environmental conditions - wind, rain, etc
MENTAL FACTOR
Method 1: Mental Toughness Questionnaire
Questionnaires are the main source of monitoring the mental toughness of an athlete. However, results are very
subjective and researchers have different theories on what elements impact mental toughness and should be
included in a questionnaire. Many feel that mental toughness is very dependent on the personality traits of an
individual whereas other researches think it comes down to the environment etc.
To collect information on mental toughness in badminton a questionnaire was completed. The questionnaire was
completed on a paper format and set into sections to assess mental sub factors. These headings included
reboundability, Handling pressure, Concentration, Level of confidence, Motivation, Level of Arousal and decision
making. Performers complete each question by answering true or false based on their own personal experiences.
Each section included 6 questions and depending on the performers answer they were awarded 1 point or 0 points.
A score of 36-42 indicates strength in overall mental toughness. Scores of 32 to 35 indicates average to moderate
skill in mental toughness. Scores of 31 or below means you need to start putting more time into the mental training
area of performance. The questionnaire can be completed at the start of training, pre-season or post match etc.
Benefits of a Questionnaires
*
Easy to set up
*
You can measure
improvements through
completion of a questionnaire
due to the written format.
*
*
*
*
Large quantities of valid
information regarding mental
sub factors for coach/teacher
and performer.
Opportunity to voice thoughts
and feelings (Subjective)which
could impact performance.
Encourages reflection.
Everyone in the class answers
the same Q's reducing bias and
increases validity and reliability
of results as the performers
are not influenced by an
interviewer.
Focusses a performers
attention on the mental factors
impacting performance.
Limitations with Questionnaires
*
Very much based on performers
perception which could be
different from reality. (bias
results)
*
Depends on the importance a
performer places on the
process and could impact the
validity of the results.
*
Misinterpretation of the
questions can occur resulting in
inconsistencies.
*
Application and focus is very
dependant on the
circumstances of the performer
(Injury, sub) etc and environment
data is collected in.
*
In the heat of the moment
information on mental factors
can be forgotten.
*
Time consuming to collate results
on a large group.
*
Closed questions . Lack of
explanation.
Method 2: Concentration Personal Reflection sheet
A concentration personal reflection sheet can be completed during training or following a competitive
match. Here the performer is asked to reflect on key elements of the game which required sustained
focus. For example one of the statements was “I am aware of the score and know which side of the court
to be on for the next point”. For each statement performers had to make an informed judgement on their
performance ticking either always, sometimes or never. There is no limit to the number of times this
subjective analysis can be done.
Develops a performers
independance, problem
solving abilities.
Develops self directed
learning skills. (Critical
thinking and reflection
Advantages of
Reflection
Sheets
Facilitates the
development of
communication skills in
team sports when they are
asked to be reflective. This
can lead to better listening
skills in open play. Players
must be willing to accept
criticism and consturctive
feedback .
Really focusses a
performer and asks them
to be self critical and to
consider significant
mental sub factors which
might otherwise have
been forgotten.
Issues with Self reflection sheets
When subjective data collection is completed it is always
down to interpretation. A performers OWN thoughts on
performance can be very different from the reality.
Validity of Self Reflection Sheet results are significantly
impacted by the importance a performer places on the
process. Often the benefits are overlooked and the
performer does not spend quality time reflecting.
In team sports, when completing team reflection sheets it
can cause disharmony in a team and impact moral of
individuals who have been pin pointed. Voicing thoughts can
open a "can of worms"
Self reflection is very unlikely to assist a performer of a
poorer performance standard as they do not possess the
judgement skills and activity knolwedge to make appropriate
reflections.
Approach 3: Decision Making Observation Schedule
A performer/teams decision making ability can be observed through a carefully constructed schedule or
scatter graph to assess the effectiveness of the decision making process. This could be observing centre
passing options in netball, setter passing options in volleyball or the shot selection from the back of the
court in badminton.
In badminton, whilst playing an opponent of equal ability back court shot selection was observed on a
scatter graph. A record was kept of where the shuttle was played from and to on the court and whether it
was a drop shot, clear or smash. This can highlight predictability of play, poor or quality shot selection
based on the depth of the shots coming over the net. It can also highlight successful decision making. i.e
playing to the backhand of the opponent etc.
Advantages of a decision making observation schedule/scatter graph
1. The written format provides a permanent record that allows for comparison at a later date.
2. Having an observer it provides objective feedback which is non-bias and more accurate.
3. By playing in a competitive match against someone of equal ability you are forced to play your full
range of shots adding to the validity of the findings as the pressurised situation can highlight
consistency and forces quick decisions at game pace.
4. Objective feedback by a person with activity knowledge ensures validity and reliability of the results
to create a detailed analysis of performance.
5. Decision making strengths and weaknesses can be identified through shot selection and court
position. This will inform future development programmes and goal setting.
Limitations of assessing decision making
1. When you have someone else recording information on performance the validity of the results are
dependent on the observers focus and attention during the match and the importance they place on the
process. Also, if they are lacking activity knowledge their perception of what equals an effective decision
might be different from the reality.
2. Badminton is a very fast paced sport and there is likely to be a number of shots in every rally. This can make
it impossible for one observer to record all shots played. When they take their eye of the match to complete
the schedule shots are missed questioning the reliability of the findings.
3. If the opposition is not of a similar ability this will provide false results and a performer might not be forced
to play their full range of shots if insufficient pressure is applied.
4. The content of the observation schedule has to be correct in the first place to focus on key elements of
performance and allow for detailed observations.
5. The mental and emotional state of the performer is crucial if accurate results are to be collected. Lack of
motivation, resilience, and anxiety etc will impact the quality of shots, decisions, concentration and
technique. If a performer is over tired, hungry etc this will impact their play and ultimately the results.
6. Results still need to be interpreted which requires judgment and evaluation skills. What if a performer does
not possess these skills.
7. If a performer is notified in advance of the data collection is being recorded this might impact the way they
play. They might over think their shots from the back of the court resulting in less fluent play and issues
elsewhere on the court.