Frizzell TOK
Propositions
Each kind of proposition is justified in a different way, so it is important to know which kind you are dealing with when
looking at a knowledge claim. While an analytic proposition can be justified on the basis of reason alone, an empirical
proposition needs the support of perceptual evidence. Value-judgments and metaphysical propositions might appeal to a
combination of reason, experience, intuition and authority to support them. Some argue that these last two give us belief
rather than knowledge.
1. What is a proposition?
Bertrand Russell in his “Inquiry into Meaning and Truth” defines a proposition as follows:
A proposition is ‘all the sentences which have the same meaning as some given sentence. An example might be: ’A Japanese
group climbed Mount Everest on June 1st’ or ‘It was on June 1st that a Japanese group climbed Mount Everest.’
Write sentences expressing the same proposition as:
a. It is seven o’clock in the morning.
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b. Professor Frizzell wrote that book.
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c. Stacey and I are sisters.
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2. What types of propositions are there?
An understanding of the different types of proposition will be of great help in clear thinking, sound argument, and
understanding the various forms of knowledge. We will distinguish four different types of propositions, as follows:
1. Empirical statement (statements of fact—evidence and coherence)—one whose truth or falsity can be determined by
appeal to evidence based on perception. The vast majority of knowledge in the natural sciences, social sciences and history is
empirical in nature.
My car is a Toyota. It can be proven with use of evidence and coherence.
2. Analytic proposition (including logical and mathematical truths)—one that is true by definition. We can know independent
of experience that such propositions are true simply by analyzing them. (If a is bigger than b and b is bigger than c, a is bigger
than c.)
“No bachelors are married.”Bachelor is a reasonable synonym for unmarried man; therefore, because No
unmarried man is married is logically true, “No bachelors are married” is true as well. However, are they always
synonyms?
3. Value-judgments (often based in relativism—true for me is false for you)—one which contains a value word, such a s
“good”, “bad”, “right”, “wrong”. While two people might agree on the facts of the matter, they still might make different
value-judgments. It is difficult to establish the truth or falsity of a value-judgment.
She is very intelligent. What makes her intelligent in your eyes is that she has many facts memorized reads the paper
every morning. Whereas, intelligence to me might mean she is able to back up her opinions with evidence.
4. Metaphysical propositions—one that is neither analytic, empirical nor a value-judgment. These are statements about the
nature of ultimate reality. For example, “God Exists” is a metaphysical proposition because it is not true by definition, cannot
be verified or falsified by empirical evidence, and is not a value-judgment.
Time has no beginning and no end.
Human free-will is an illusion.
ToK Textbook—174-175
Which of the following are propositions:
1. God created flowers.
2. Put those flowers in a vase.
3. Roses are beautiful.
4. Two red roses plus four white roses equals six roses.
5. People must water their flowers.
6. Flowers are edible.
7. Orchids are expensive.
What kind of propositions are the following? Justify your answer. (Empirical statement, analytical statement, value
judgment, metaphysical statement.)
1. Strawberries are delicious.
2. The sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles.
3. Napoleon was a general.
4. There is no such thing as an uncaused event.
5. The law requires motor vehicles to stop at red traffic lights.
6. This man is greedy.
7. The rate of flow of electrons through a wire can be measured.
8. I am not imagining this desk.
9. Metals expand when heated.
10. God has always existed.
11. Yesterday’s sunset was amazing.
12. One hour contains sixty minutes.
13. That was a horrible thing to do.
14. Mosquitos spread malaria.
15. People claim to know God through meditation.
16. High school students are teenagers.
RANK the four kinds of propositions in terms of their certainty:
Empirical statetment
Analytic Statement
Value Judgment
Metaphysical Statement