The World by the 1920s: Challenges to European Dominance
EQ: How did WWI cause European decline worldwide? Who challenged European world dominance after
WWI and Where?
Introduction
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The 1920s were profoundly shaped by WWI and worldwide independence movements (from
Imperialism) that were underway before the war
Four major patterns emerged:
o 1) Western Europe’s recovery from the war was incomplete at best
o 2) The US and Japan used WWI to vault them into being world superpowers
o 3) Nationalists movements in key European colonies distracted the already war weary
European powers
o 4) Revolutions in countries such as Mexico, Russia and China shook the economic and
political foundations of Imperialism (brief summaries, more on these next class)
Each of these developments brought into doubt western Europe’s assumptions about its place as
the dominant global power
Western Europe’s Post War Disarray
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WWI quickly shattered the people’s confidence in pre-war European government, which, in the
post war, were unable to deal with mounting economic, social, political and even psychological
issues
Once grand imperial governments in Germany and Austria-Hungary collapsed to the pressure
With the majority of fighting having been done over territory in Europe, several groups of people
became displaced
The reality of 10 million deaths in Europe also took their toll
European governments now had NO MONEY since the failed to properly tax their citizens for war
production, and debt to led to inflation and vast unemployment (precursor to depression)
The Roaring 20s in Europe
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A brief period of recovery occurred…diplomatic tensions between nations eased and several signed
the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, outlawing war forever between nations of Europe (pssh, yeah that
really worked!)
Internal politics were mixed, as several leftist entities sought to emulate the Russian Revolution
(Communism) in some nations, while Rightists focused on establishing authoritarian governments
focused on national pride (Fascism)
Rampant consumerism (desire for autos, radios and other amenities) spurred economic growth in
the short term
Cultural creativity in areas of film (the new medium), Cubism, writing (Realism) distracted the
masses
Women in particular gained great rights, as nations gave them suffrage at the beginning of the
decade…women also challenged Victorian norms and became crazed (drinking, smoking, etc.)
while the reaction was to maintain domesticity for women as a whole
Fascism and New Nations
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In 1919, Benito Mussolini formed the fascio di combattimento or union for struggle…advocated a strong
central state with state control over all aspects of society while emphasizing national
pride…conditions in post-war Italy drove people to follow this new government (labor unrest, lack
of territory, inept parliament)
Mussolini used these issues to gain support…once in power he eliminated rivals, used propaganda
and speeches to spur nationalist fervor and eliminated privatization
Meanwhile, in Eastern Europe, new nations were formed as a result of the collapse of the Ottoman
Empire and Austria-Hungary Empire…most struggled to find political stability and move beyond
agriculture in the economic sector
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All spurned Communism while reaching out to western nations for help (little to be had)…internal
strife amongst ethnic groups coupled with agricultural price collapses during the Depression
severely crippled these new nations, which became ripe for conquering by larger neighbors
(Germany, Italy, Soviet Union)
The Rise of the US (1920s)
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While settler societies in Canada and Australia became autonomous (self-sustaining) during this
period, the United States moved to the forefront as the world’s major superpower
Despite serious attempts to remain isolated (rejection of Versailles Treaty of WWI), the US found
itself as the premiere provider of industrial consumer goods and agricultural food commodities
during this period, largely due to the innovations of corporate thinkers (Ford, Carnegie,
Rockefeller) and government friendly business policies
Add to this, the US took the lead in the sciences and the arts during this period, producing more of
the world’s most important advances (assembly line, refrigeration, synthetic fibers, etc.) and
experimenting in a variety of newer art mediums (Jazz, “talkies”, dances)
The Japanese Empire
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As European imperialism waned in East Asia, Japan stepped in…fueled by zaibatsus and
jingoist/militarist government policies, the Japanese economy grew
The Japanese industrial system converted from simple light industries (silk) to expansion in
mechanical (ships, planes, cars), electric and steel industries
A better standard of living spurred huge population growth and a demand for agricultural
production to increase…territorial expansion into east Asia brought relief to food supplies…the
Japanese government focused on strict education programs, with universal compulsory education
required through secondary school by 1925.
Japan did have to dodge the oncoming issues associated with the Great Depression, coupled with
ongoing resistance to assimilate outside cultural beliefs (Western ideas) and rapid population
growth leading to overcrowding in an already cramped space
Nationalist Challenges in India (C28)
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British exploitation of the Indian populace reached its peak by WWI…many saw themselves drawn
into military service for the British Empire while others grew tired of subjugation under economic
exploitation…early nationalist leaders such as B.G. Tilak proposed violence in response to
subjugation, but Britain was able to suppress it
In 1919, many peaceful protests broke out across India…one at Amritsar turned into a massacre…it
sparked militant nationalists in India to begin to demand greater independence from the British
crown…Britain responded with reforms (Montagu-Chelmsford of 1919) which gave Indian
legislators greater administrative power…However, Britain also passed the Rowlatt Act which
severely limited civil rights
Mohandas Gandhi emerged as the new Nationalist leader in the 1920s…he promoted Hindu beliefs
at the center of his movement (ahimsa, satyagraha)…he proposed that the way to weaken British
control was through non-violent civil disobedience, refuse to support the imperialist machine
Middle Eastern Nationalism (C28)
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The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire as a result of WWI led to a question of how Middle Eastern
territory should be handled…many societies in the region looked to Europe to help rebuild and
restructure while other maintained self-sufficiency
In Turkey, the skilled military leader Mustafa Kemal (aka Ataturk) successfully defended
imperialist territorial expansions from Italy and Greece to establish a modern Turkish republic on
Asia Minor
Meanwhile, sheiks/sharifs in Damascus, Beruit and Baghdad looked to Europeans to solve their
territorial issues…post WWI military occupation led to the creation of artificial borders which were
drawn by Europeans through several mandates, angering several ME leaders to no avail
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The greatest issue surrounded Palestine…Zionists sought a Jewish state in Palestine for Jews being
expelled from Europe (pogroms)…European powers pledged this state through the Balfour
Declaration, which was vehemently opposed by all Arabs…nonetheless, as long as Europe
continued to directly occupy the Middle East in the 1930s and 1940s, Jews flooded into their new
homeland
Egyptian Nationalism (C28)
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Egypt’s nationalist movement was unique because it preceded European domination…remember,
Egypt revolted against Ottoman rule (C26) in the late 19th C, prompting Britain to intervene and
occupy
Britain basically replaced the Ottomans as masters of Egypt…decades of occupation led to violence
(Dinshawai incident of 1906)
In 1913, the British were pressured into creating a constitution for Egypt, however, representation
was limited to men of wealth (i.e. those in collusion with Britain)
WWI took a heavy toll on the Egyptian people as Britain declared martial law in Egypt while
focusing its entire attention on protecting the Suez Canal from foreign takeover…add to this, food
supplies in Egypt were drained mostly by Britain’s military force, leading to widespread food
shortages/starvation
Egypt was now ripe for revolt, and in 1919, it happened…Egyptian delegates were denied right to
represent their case for self-determination at the Versailles peace conference and they called for
public protest…students and women (yes, women) led the demonstrations and a new party, the
Wafd came to power during the rebellion
Britain began a slow withdraw in stages by 1922, eventually remaining only to protect the canal by
1936…HOWEVER, despite the loss of direct occupation by Britain, the new Wafd party did little to
improve Egypt over the next few decades, as widespread corruption and collusion with British
interests continued…most of Egypt’s farmland was still in the hands of less than 6% of the
population…it will not be until 1952 when sweeping reforms were brought in by socialist leader
Gamal Abdul Nasser
African Nationalism (C28)
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Likewise with India and Egypt, in Africa, the educated elite and traditional rulers are in cahoots
with European imperialists…WWI saw both conflict in Africa (as allies removed Italy and Germany
from possessions) as well as raw material and military labor exploitation throughout the continent
Continued promises of better living conditions and better employment for Africans went unmet,
with several members of the elite breaking away from European collusion…widespread strikes and
protest broke out in Africa in the 1920s
Outside forces from the US (WEB DuBois and Marcus Garvey) led pan-African movements from
America, attempting to get many former slave families to return to Africa to reclaim their
heritage…in French West Africa, the negritude movement sparked conflict regarding racial/social
stereotypes in Africa…it reminded Africans that once upon a time Africa was ruled by societies that
promoted greater equality (for women especially), where all citizens were cared for, etc. (well,
forget the fact that there was slavery)
In response to pressures, colonial powers did give greater autonomy to newly formed nationalist
governments in some areas (not settler areas like Kenya or Rhodesia)…however, it would not be
until after WWII that African independence efforts were kicked into full gear.
Mexican Revolution: A Summary
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Liberals (like Francisco Madero) demanded political and land reform from the Diaz regime (who
refused changed)…several characters (Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Villa, Victoriano Huerta and
Alvaro Obregon) took it upon themselves to raise armies to replace the Diaz regime
Obregon was the eventual winner…a constitution in 1917 promised land reform (but did not
happen fast enough) and greater education (more of a success)
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Mexico post-revolution experienced nationalism and “indigenism”, as natives and mestizos
demanded more…Marxism also had some impacts demanding secularism…conservative Catholics
launched the Cristeros movement to retain their power in Mexico
By the 1930s, a political party known as the PRI (Party of the Institutionalized Revolution) took
control…though Mexico was now a multiparty democracy, the PRI dominated Mexico with
caudillo-like rule until the 21st century
Russian Revolution: A Summary
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Failures by the czarist leadership to defend Russia in WWI coupled with famines and worker unrest
caused the revolution…a newly developed council of workers called the soviet demanded the
dissolution of the czarist regime and the institution of democratic rule…this happened, but for a
short time under Alexander Kerensky (February 1917)
In October 1917, another revolt occurred expelling Kerensky’s liberals and installing Lenin’s
Bolsheviks to power
An internal civil war raged between RED (Communist) and WHITE (liberal and czarist) factions
from 1918-1921, with the Communist REDS winning
Lenin set out the develop the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) by developing a New
Economic Policy based on 5 year plans and state control and creating the Supreme Soviet based on
one party, but still elected.
Chinese Revolution: A Summary
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In 1912, the abdication of the last Chinese emperor Puyi set the stage for the early battle for China
between Democratic factions (Sun Yat-Sen) and warlord factions (Yuan Shikai) as well as the
constant fear of invasion from Japan
Increased Japanese encroachment led to the May Fourth Movement, demanding reform and a
decrease in foreign involvement and greater democratization…warlords would not budge and
foreign involvement increased…as a result, some educated students (like Mao Zedong) turned to
Communism
Sun Yatsen’s Guomindang (Democratic National Party) seized power from the warlords in the
1920s and under the leadership of Sun’s successor, Chiang Kai Shek, aligned with the Communists,
then turned on them, seeking their destruction by the end of the decade
Mao knew that the only way to gain control of China and to solve the problems of the nation was to
make promises to the peasants…when Mao was escaping persecution from the Chiang’s force on
the Long March, he made sure to preach Communist ideology to the peasants
In the end, the Guomindang and the Communists had to once again join force to fight the invading
Japanese in the 1930s and early 1940s…only to go right back at each other’s throats once World
War II was over.
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