Primer in Alpaca Husbandry
Syllabus
Introduction
The llama and alpaca were domesticated from the guanaco and vicuña, respectively, about 4000 years ago
in the central Andes. Husbandry of the two domestic species subsequently diffused north and south, and by
the early 16th century the camelid culture area encompassed the mountainous regions of modern Chile,
Argentina, Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador, plus the irrigated coastal valleys of the desert Pacific Rim. Llamas
and alpacas permitted the successful occupation of a vast area of the Andes, often too high and too dry for
agriculture, but productive when occupied by these hardy herbivores. The transformative impact of the
llama and alpaca, however, was halted by the demographic collapse of both human and camelid
populations following the Spanish Conquest in 1532. Due to introduced disease and the displacement of
camelids by Old World domestic animals, by 1650 the llama and alpaca population had dropped by 90%,
with many local extinctions.
The demographic bottleneck was exacerbated by a loss of quality, as llamas were allowed to breed with
alpacas (producing a fertile and undesirable hybrid) and as indigenous husbandry practices were
abandoned. Camelids persisted in remote pockets away from Colonial activity, but their quality as well as
their numbers continued to decline. The camelids now grazing the Andes, with localized exceptions, are a
major retreat from the genetic and productive levels obtained after millennia of selection, culminating
with the Incas. Recovering the pre-Columbian quality of llamas and alpacas therefore becomes the major
challenge for contemporary herders and indigenous communities in the Andes.
This course will permit students to become accomplished in the principal alpaca husbandry practices
through daily work with a large alpaca herd on the Mazar Wildlife Reserve (MWR), and will place alpacas,
llamas and vicuñas in their historical and geographical contexts.
Setting for the Course
We will have access to a herd of 500 alpacas in a beautiful setting in Ecuador located between 10,000 and
12,000 feet elevation. The landscape includes alpaca pastures, montane forest, and grassland páramos
above tree line. The host ranch is part of a private conservation area, the Mazar Wildlife Reserve (MWR),
owned and operated since 1982 by the instructor and located 50 km to the northeast of Cuenca. Various
sites within the MWR, separated by walking distances of 1-3 hours, will be used for husbandry practices.
Students will be housed in rustic cabins, or personal tents if preferred. Basic services (electricity, running
water, road access) will be available. Internet access will be limited to the beginning and end of the
session, during stays in urban areas. Hikes between sites that traverse forests and grasslands will be used
to discuss the conservation opportunities provided by alpaca husbandry.
Although most of the course will take place on the Mazar Wildlife Reserve, where the alpacas ranch is
located, a short field trip to central Ecuador will focus on llama husbandry by indigenous communities,
and provide a unique opportunity to view vicuñas at close range on the high páramo within the
government’s Chimborazo Faunal Preserve. For those interested, we will have the option to ascend to the
climbing hut and spend a night in the shadow of Mount Chimborazo’s glaciers.
Instructor
The instructor, Stuart White, has lived in Ecuador for 31 years and raised alpacas on the MWR since 1985
after introducing them from Chile and Peru. He has also raised cattle, llamas and sheep. Stuart received a
PhD in Geography at the University of Wisconsin in 1981 and subsequently taught Geography at the
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, until moving to Ecuador. In addition to raising alpacas, Stuart has
spent his years in two pursuits: First, promoting the reintroduction of this camelid to the Ecuadorian rural
economy; and second, as habitat conservation advocate, crystalized in the establishment of the Fundación
Cordillera Tropical (www.cordilleratropical.org), which he headed between 2000 and 2010. Since 2010
Stuart has been associated with the Geography Department at the University of Vermont, where he taught
during 2011-2012.
Course Objectives
1. Understand camelid culture history in the Andes.
2. Learn the principal camelid husbandry practices: Handling and restraint, the parenteral and oral
administration of pharmaceuticals, blood drawing, castration, placement of uterine boluses, toenail
clipping, incisor trimming, use of a feeding tube, shearing, and fiber classification. Students will have the
opportunity to work directly with large numbers of alpacas and will perform all of these interventions,
some many times.
3. Appreciate herd management as practiced in the tropical Andes, including the use of infrastructure,
routine preventive health care, major causes of morbidity and mortality, pasture management, and the
construction of a salubrious and productive farm space.
4. Gain a practiced eye in the evaluation of fiber quality and conformation in alpacas, and review methods
for genetic improvements. Students will learn to judge alpacas and to make on-farm selection of
promising sires.
5. Know the principal parasitic and infectious diseases affecting alpacas, means of control, and treatment.
6. Observe the non-lethal methods employed to reduce predation by mountain lions and foxes, and the cost
of these interventions.
7. Focus on the reproductive cycle, birthing and support for newborn crías and alpaca dams. For the
Winter Session, we will have the opportunity to work with birthing mothers and alpaca newborns.
8. Distinguish llamas and alpacas in physical aspect, ideal types, and economic potential.
9. Evaluate the feasibility of alpaca husbandry as a tool for conservation and the protection of
environmental services in the tropical Andes.
Course Structure
This course earns 4 credits.
Class discussions on specific topics early and late in the day will be combined with sustained daily
involvements with the alpacas as detailed in the schedule below. On most days, 2 hours will be dedicated
to the instructor’s presentations, followed by discussions; and 5 hours with the alpacas learning husbandry
techniques. An additional 1-2 hours will be needed to complete the day’s readings.
Students will be provided a spiral-bound volume with all required articles included, and from which
readings will be assigned. A digital version will also be available.
Grading will be based on participation in discussions, mastery of husbandry techniques and an end-ofsession oral presentation to the class.
Readings [subject to revision]
Baum K (2003) Meningeal worm. In: Hoffman E, The Complete Alpaca Book, pp. 435-436 (Bonny
Doon Press, Santa Cruz, CA)
Bonavia D (1999) The domestication of Andean camelids. In: Politis G and Alberti B (eds),
Archaeology in Latin America. Routledge, London.
Brush S (1982) The natural and human environment of the central Andes. Mountain Research and
Development 2: 19-38.
Carpenter L (2003) Bacterial, viral and fungal diseases. In: Hoffman E, The Complete Alpaca Book,
pp. 446-453. Bonny Doon Press, Santa Cruz, CA.
Davis G (2003) Breeding to improve fleece quality. In: Hoffman E, The Complete Alpaca Book, pp.
545-552. Bonny Doon Press, Santa Cruz, CA.
Ellis R (2003) Clostridium perfringens enteritis. In: Hoffman E, The Complete Alpaca Book, pp.
454-458. Bonny Doon Press, Santa Cruz, CA.
Fernández-Baca S (1990) Llamoids or New World Camelidae: Llama, alpaca, guanaco and vicuña.
In: Payne, WJA, An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics, 4th edition. Longman,
Essex, England.
Fowler M (1994) Health care of the geriatric llama and alpaca. In: Johnson L (ed), Update on Llama
Medicine, pp. 391-399. The Veterinary Clinics of North America, Food Animal Practice
10(2). Saunders, Philadelphia.
Giorgi J (1985) Trematodes. In: Giorgi J, Parasitology for Veterinarians, 4th edition, pp. 73-83.
Saunders, Philadelphia.
Hoffman E (2003) Anatomy and conformation. In: Hoffman E, The Complete Alpaca Book, pp. 5782. Bonny Doon Press, Santa Cruz, CA.
Koford C (1957) The vicuña and the puna. Ecological Monographs 27: 153-219.
Luteyn J (1999) Introduction to the páramo ecosystem. In: Luteyn, J (ed) Páramos: A checklist of
plant diversity, geographical distribution, and botanical literature. Brooklyn, New York: New
York Botanical Garden, 1-39.
Miller G, Gill A (1990) Zooarchaeology at Pirincay, a Formative Period site in highland Ecuador.
Journal of Field Archaeology 17(1): 49-68.
McConnel T (2003) Parasitology. In: Hoffman E, The Complete Alpaca Book, pp. 423-426. Bonny
Doon Press, Santa Cruz, CA.
Murra J (1965) Herds and herders in the Inca state. In: Leeds A and Vayda AP( eds), Man, Culture,
and Animals: The Role of Animals in Human Ecological Adjustments. American Association
for the Advancement of Science, Washington, 103-140.
Novoa C and Wheeler J (1984) Llama and alpaca. In: Mason IL (ed), Evolution of Domesticated
Animals. Longman, London and New York, 116-128.
Parsons J (1982) The northern Andean environment. Mountain Research and Development 2: 253262.
Rainsford F (2005) Concern over Peru’s coarsening alpaca fibre. Wild Fibers Magazine, Spring
2005: 4-7.
Sponenberg DP (2003) Genetics of fiber type and coat color. In: Hoffman E, The Complete Alpaca
Book, pp. 523-544. Bonny Doon Press, Santa Cruz, CA.
Stahl P (1988) Prehistoric camelids in the lowlands of western Ecuador. Journal of Archaeological
Science 15: 355-365.
Stahl P (2008) The contributions of zooarchaeology to historical ecology in the neotropics.
Quaternary International 180(1): 5-16.
Thedford T and Johnson L (1989) Infectious diseases of New-World Camelids (NWC). In: Johnson
L (ed), Llama Medicine, pp. 145-157 (The Veterinary Clinics of North America, Food Animal
Practice 5(1). Saunders, Philadelphia.
Tibary A (2003a) Obstetrics and neonatology. In: Hoffman E, The Complete Alpaca Book, pp. 387402. Bonny Doon Press, Santa Cruz, CA.
Tibary A (2003b) Female reproduction. In: Hoffman E., The Complete Alpaca Book, pp. 351-386.
Bonny Doon Press, Santa Cruz, CA.
Tibary A (2003c) Male reproduction. In: Hoffman E, The Complete Alpaca Book, pp. 325-350.
Bonny Doon Press, Santa Cruz, CA.
Wheeler J (2012a) Evalucación genetica de las variedades de llama k’ara, suri y llamingo en Peru y
Ecuador. PowerPoint presentation at the International Camelid Conference, Arica, Chile.
Wheeler J (2012b) South American camelids: Past, present and future. Journal of Camelid Science
5: 1-24.
Wheeler J, Russel A and Redden H (1995) Llamas and alpacas: Pre-conquest breeds and postconquest hybrids. Journal of Archaeological Science 22: 833-840.
White S (2003) Sarcosystosis: A disease endemic to Andean alpacas. In: Hoffman E, The Complete
Alpaca Book, pp. 427-434. Bonny Doon Press, Santa Cruz, CA.
White S (2013) Grass páramo as hunter-gatherer landscape. The Holocene (in press).
Wunder S (2005) Payments for Environmental Services: Some Nuts and Bolts. CIFOR Occaisonal
Paper No. 42, Bangor, Indonesia.
Wing E (1986) Domestication of Andean mammals. In: Vuilleumier F, Monasterio M (eds) High
Altitude Tropical Biogeography. Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford, pp 246264.
Suggested Clothing and Equipment
(Ideally, everything should fit in a single large pack; plus a carry-on)
Clothing
 Full rain suit (top and pants, preferably with hood)
 Hat with brim (for both sun and rain protection)
 Comfortable hiking foot ware (Gore-Tex or waterproof if possible)
 Additional sneakers or running shoes
 3-4 changes of warm clothing
 Hooded jacket, parka or overcoat
 2-3 sweaters
 Travel clothes (for international arrival and departure)
Personal items
 Sun block
 Toiletries
 Purification tablets or pumps (optional, because pure drinking water will be available)
 Passport in zip-lock bag
 Personal medicines
 Notebook
Equipment
 One-person tent (optional, for those who prefer tent-camping in pastures during time on
the Reserve)
 Sleeping bag (for cool [40s] nights) and ground pad
 Camera (electricity is available for recharging batteries)
 Laptop or tablet (optional) Internet access is not available on the Reserve but available in
cities as noted in the schedule
 Cell phone (optional) International coverage is available from cities, but not from the
Reserve; a satellite phone will be available at all times for emergencies.
Items not necessary
 Drinking water or food
 Any bedding, except for sleeping bag and pad
 Single-use batteries
Schedule of Activities and Topics
The course begins December 29, 2013 and ends January 11, 2014. Hands-on husbandry activities will be complemented by formal presentations by the
instructor on specific topics early and late in the day. [Opportunities for Internet access are noted in brackets.]
Date
Dec.
29,
2013
Dec. 30
AM Discussion
Topic
Course introduction
and distribution of
class reader
Dec. 31
Llama and alpaca
domestication
Jan. 1,
2014
Llama and alpaca—
differences and
similarities
Jan. 2
Superior qualities of
llamas and alpacas
in the pre-Columbian
period
The ideal alpaca
Jan. 3
Jan. 4
Care of dams and
crías; common
problems
Daytime activities
PM Discussion Topic
Gather at designated hotel in Guayaquil. Students will be met at the
Guayaquil airport by the instructor or hotel personnel, and be taken by
shuttle bus directly to the hotel.
[Internet access]
Am visit to Malecón river park in Guayaquil. Overland trip from
Guayaquil to Cuenca. We traverse the broad coastal plain, dominated
by rice, bananas and cattle pastures, and then climb the steep western
face of the Andes. Light picnic lunch in the páramo grasslands of Cajas
National Park (13,500’), before descending to Cuenca (8,400’) by midafternoon. Night at hotel in Cuenca
[Internet access]
Cuenca to the Mazar Wildlife Reserve (MWR) and alpaca ranch: Four
hours of mountain landscapes and exposure to sloped agricultural
systems. Settle-in after arrival, and our first encounter with the alpaca
herd. Basic management infrastructure and daily routine are discussed.
We make our first detailed observations of normal alpaca behavior. We
help put the alpacas into their nocturnal corrals as protection from
puma predation.
PM: New Year celebration as practiced in rural Ecuador
Today we begin with basic husbandry practices: Handling and
restraint; toenail clipping; incisor trimming; oral delivery of
antiparasitic drugs; and the provision of mineralized salt. Review of
normal alpaca behavior.
We learn additional husbandry practices: Parenteral administration
(IM, SC, IV), castration, and use of the stomach tube to feed milk to
newborns. All students will have multiple opportunities to hone these
and future skills.
Today we focus on fiber quality (fineness, density, crimp, sheen)—the
fundamental reason for alpaca husbandry. Also we will examine
conformation; common conformation defects; choosing your sire;
practice in estimating micron count of fiber; use of laboratory fiber
analyses.
Today we look at various aspects of reproduction: Female and male
anatomy; normal and abnormal function; reproductive genetic defects;
methods of selective breeding; normal birth process in camelids;
dystocias and corrections of abnormal presentations; vaginal and
uterine prolapses; use of the intrauterine bolus and prolapse retainer;
feeding orphan alpaca crías by stomach tube.
Reading
Fernández-Baca, 1990
Novoa and Wheeler, 1984
Basic Andean geography;
Cultural and political
chronology of the Andes
Parsons, 1982
Brush, 1982
Diffusion of domestic
camelids
Wing, 1986
Wheeler, 2012b
Stahl, 2008
Bonavia, 1999
Basics of alpaca physiology
and behavior
Stahl, 1988
Objectives of contemporary
husbandry
Murra, 1965
Wheeler et al., 1995
Economics of alpaca
husbandry in Ecuador and
Peru
Hoffman, 2003
Rainsford, 2005
Sponenberg, 2003
Davis, 2003
Systems of breeding;
criteria for selection of
sires
Tibary, 2003 (a, b, c)
Schedule of Activities and Topics (cont.)
Date
AM Discussion
Topic
Daytime activities
PM Discussion Topic
Reading
Jan. 5
Introduction to
Sangay National
Park
Alpaca husbandry as
conservation tool in
páramo
Luteyn, 1999
White, 2013
Wunder, 2005
Jan. 6
Infectious diseases
and predators
(Andean fox,
mountain lion,
domestic dog)
Parasitic diseases, with
special attention to
sarcocystiosis and
fascioliasis
Fowler, 1994
Giorgi, 1985
Thedford and Johnson, 1989
Ellis, 2003
Carpenter, 2003
White, 2003
Baum, 2003
McConnel, 2003
Jan. 7
[Early rise to pack
and depart for
Salinas]
Jan. 8
Vicuñas
Jan. 9
The Ecuadorian
llamingo: A remnant
breed and its
conservation
Course summary
Ride to páramo grassland near the top of the MWR. Origin of páramo
vegetation; fire management; nutritional and husbandry considerations
in páramo; infrastructure and management practices to reduce
predator losses to the puma, Andean fox, domestic dog. Spend night at
páramo camp (11,300’).
AM: Hike down through páramo and then tropical montane forest to
lower-elevation pastures (3 hours).
PM (after arrival in Pilisurcu): Taking a fecal sample; normal and
abnormal feces; taking a rectal temperature; normal pulse and
respiration; using the microscope to identify external and internal
parasites.
Symptoms of common infectious and parasitic diseases; treatments;
management solutions to disease.
From Mazar Wildlife Reserve, overland in van to Salinas (eight hours), a
town adjoining Ecuador’s “Avenue of the Volcanoes”. En route we will
survey highland agricultural systems and their intimate relationship to
changing natural environments, markets, and culture areas. Overnight
at hotel in Salinas.
[Internet access]
AM: Visit with indigenous llama herders in Bolivar Province.
PM: Trip to Chimborazo National Fauna Reserve to observe vicuñas in
the wild. Night at the climbing hut on Chimborazo mountain.
AM: Visit to llama meat processing plant and indigenous community
museum. Llama lunch (for those interested; vegetarian options
available).
PM: Overland return to Cuenca.
[Internet access]
AM: Preparation of presentations.
PM: Optional Cuenca city tour.
[Internet access]
Jan 10
Jan 11
Early AM overland to
Guayaquil airport;
return to US
Principal constraints on
alpaca husbandry in
Ecuador and the central
Andes
Vicuña conservation in
Ecuador and the central
Andes
[Preparation time for oral
presentations]
Student presentations and
final roundtable
Koford, 1957
Miller and Gill, 1990
Wheeler et al., 2012a (ppt)