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Particle Physics
Conservation
In nuclear reactions Mass – energy is conserved ( E = mc2) ( K.E. = ½mv2)
Momentumis conserved ( momentum = mass x velocity )
Electric charge is conserved
In some nuclear reactions in particular β decay,energy and momentum appeared not to be conserved
In 1930 Pauli suggested that another particle a neutrino () was emitted in the decay
The neutrino was discovered in 1956 by Cowan and Reines .
Worked example
U 238 ->Th234 + He 4Kinetic energy of the products = 6.8x10-13Joules
92
90
2
Calculate the energy of the  particle
Solution : Total momentum before the interaction = total momentum after the interaction
Momentum of the U is zero = Momentum of the (Th + He ) (He is an particle)
=> - Momentum of Th = Momentum of He ()
- Mass Th x velocityTh = Mass He x Velocity He
Ratio of the masses 234 : 4 = 58.5 : 1 ( Th : He )
Ratio of the velocities 1Th : 58.5 He
Momentum = mass x velocity
Kinetic energy = ½ mass (velocity)2
Therefore the ratio of the kinetic energies depends on the ratio of the velocities
KE of
Th + He () -> 6.8 x 10 -13 Joules
1 : 58.5 -> 6.8X10-13Joules
( 59.5)
-> 6.8X10-13 Joules
KE of Th = 6.8x10-13
= 1.14 x 10 -14 Joules
59.5
KE of the He (  ) = ( KE of Th x 58.5 ) = ( 1.14 x 10 -14 ) x ( 58.5 ) = 6.69x10-13 Joules
Problem :Americium 241 emits an ( He42 )particle with a velocity of 3 x 107 ms-1 .
Calculate the recoil velocity of the resulting nucleus .
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1
H1
7
+
Li 3
4
4
= He 2
+
He 2 + Energy
This experiment is important because
1. It is the first particle accelerator
2. It was the first experimental proof for Einstein`s equation (E = mc2 )
3. It was the first artificial splitting of a nucleus
4. It was the first transmutation of an element using artificially accelerated particles .
Transmutation=to change one element into another
1919 Rutherford performed the first artificial transmutation when he changed Nitrogen into Oxygen
4
14
17
1
He () + N = O + H
2
7
8
1
Problem( units given in Kg) When Lithium is bombarded with a proton two alpha particles are produced.
How much energy is released in this reaction? Give your answer in both Joules and electron volts(eV).
Lithium nucleus = 1.165007 x 10-26Kg, the mass of the proton = 1.673493x10-27Kg and the mass of the alpha
particle is 6.646322x10-27Kg. ( speed of light = 3 x 108 )2
The reaction is
7
3
Li + 1H 4He + 4He + Energy
1
2
2
Total mass of reactants = (1.165007 x 10-26) + (1.673493x10-27) = 1.332356x10-26 Kg
Total mass of the products = 2 x (6.646322x10-27)
= 1.329264x10-26Kg
-26
-26
Decrease in mass = (1.332356x10 ) - (1.329264x10 )
= 3.092x10-29Kg
E = m c2 = ( 3.092 x 10-29 ) ( 3 x 108 )2
= 2.7828 x 10 -12 Joules.
Energy released = 2.7828 x 10 -12 J
Convert Joules to electron volts divide by the charge on the electron ( 1.6 x 10 -19 Coulomb )
Energy released
2.7828 x 10 – 12 = 17.39 x 10 6 e V
1.6x10-19
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In particle physics the mass is often expressed in unified atomic mass units u
1u =1.66 x 10 -27 Kg
Repeat of previous problem with the units given in unified atomic mass unitsu
When Lithium is bombarded with a proton two alpha particles are produced. How much energy is released?
Lithium = 7.01600u, a proton = 1.00783u and an alpha particle = 4.00260u
( 1 u = 1.66 x 10 -27 Kg ) and ( speed of light = 3 x 10 8 ms-1)
The reaction is
7
Li + 1H 4He + 4He + Energy
312 2
Total mass of the reactants : 7.01600 + 1.00783 = 8.02383 u
Total mass of the products : 2 x ( 4.00260 )
= 8.00520 u
Mass Defect = (8.02383) - (8.00520) = 0.01863 u
Now convert (unified atomic mass units) u to Kg (0.01863) X (1.66 X 10 -27) = 3.0925 X 10 -29 Kg
Energy released E = mc2Energy = ( 3.0925 x 10 -29 ) ( 3 x 10 8)2 = 2.78 X 10-12 Joules
If asked convert Joules to electron volts ( see previous example )
Problem : Show that 1 u is equivalent to an energy of 931 MeV
( 1u = 1.66 x 10 -27 kg ) ( c = 3 x 10 8 ms-1 ) ( e- = 1.602 x 10-19 C )
E = m c2 = ( 1.66 x 10 -27 ) x ( 3 x 10 8 ) 2 Joules of energy
To convert Joules to e V ( electron volts ) :
Energy injoules
Charge on the electron
=
( 1.66 x 10 -27) ( 3 x 10 8 ) 2
( 1.602 x 10 -19 )
= 931 x 10 6eV = 931 MeV
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2007 ( higher ) Q. 10 a( calculations only )
What is the velocity of the proton when it is accelerated through a potential difference of 700kV?
( mass of proton = 1.6726 x 10-27 kg )
( charge on the electron = 1.6022 x 10 -19 C )
Work ( energy ) = charge on the electron x voltage
W = q x V
Work ( kinetic energy ) = ½ mass x (velocity) 2
W
= ½mv2
 qx V
=
½mv2
( V = VOLTAGE
2
 2(q x V )
=
v
m
2 x ( 1.6022 x 10 -19 ) x (700 x 10 3 ) = v 2
1.6726 x 10-27
v = velocity )
1.6 x 10 -7m s-1
= v
Write a nuclear equation to represent the disintegration of a lithium nucleus when bombarded with a
proton , and calculate the energy released in the disintegration .
( mass of Lithium nucleus = 1.1646 x 10 -26 kg) ( mass of Helium nucleus = 6.6443x 10-27kg )
( speed of light = 2.9979 x 10 8 ms-1)
Li73 + H11 ->2 He42
Mass of the reactants = ( 1.646 x 10 -26 ) + (1.6726x 10-27) = 1.33186 x 10 -26 Kg
Mass of the products = 2 x ( 6.6443 x 10-27 )= 1.32886 x 10 -26 kg
Loss of mass = ( 1.33186 x 10-26 ) – (1.32886 x 10-26) = 0.003 x 10 -26 = 3 x 10 -29kg
Energy released = E = mc2 ( 3 x 10 –2 9 ) x ( 2.9979 x 108)2 = 2.7 x 10 -12 Joules
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Converting energy into mass
Antimatter :In 1928 Paul Dirac predicted the existence of antimatter
In 1932 Carl Anderson discovered the positron ( e+) , the antiparticle of the electron .
We now know that every particle has an antiparticle
Pair production : Is the production of a particle and its antiparticle from a photon of energy
Pair production occurs when a high energy gamma ray () photon loses its energy (E =hf )
when it collides with a nucleus. Some of its energy is converted into the mass of the electron and positron ,
the rest of its energy appears as the kinetic energy of the particles.
Photon electron + positron

e+
e+
Mass – Energy is conserved : energy of the photon ( E = h f ) is converted into the
mass and kinetic energy of the electron and positron.
Momentum is conserved :Theincident gamma ray had zero momentum
The electron - positron pair move with equal velocity inopposite directions’
Electric charge is conserved : The gamma ray photon had no charge
Sum of the charges on the positron(e+) + electron(e-) = zero
Problem: An electron and a positron are produced from a photon of energy in the electric field of the
Nucleus. What is the minimum energy photon necessary for this?
(melectron = 0.0005486 u ) ( 1 u = 1.66x10-27Kg) ( e- = 1.602x 10-19C ) ( c = 3 x 10 8 ms-1)
Note : The minimum energy assumes all the energy is turned into matter ,
and the particles produced have zero kinetic energy .
The electron and positron have equal mass ( melectron = 0.0005486 u )
Mass of electron + positron = 2 ( 0.0005486 ) = 0.0010972 u
Convert u to kg ( 0.0010972 ) x ( 1.66 x 10-27)
= 1.8213 x 10-30 kg
E = mc2 = ( 1.18213 x 10 -30 ) x ( 3 x 10 8 )2 = 1.63917 x 10 -13 Joules of energy
Convert joules to eV = energy in joules = 1.63917 x 10-13 = 1023202.247 eV
Charge on electron
1.602 x 10-19
= 1.02 x 10 6 eV
When the photon has greater energy than this the excess shows as kinetic energy of the particles
If the photon has less energy than this pair production will not happen
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Converting matter into energy
Pair annihialation : When an electron and a positron meet they
annihilate each other and are replaced by
two photons of energy moving in opposite directions
e- + e+ =  + 
e- + e+ = 2hf
( electron + positron  2 photons of energy )
Conservation of mass - energy : All the mass of the electron and positron is
changed into two photons of energy
Conservation of momentum : Initially the particles are at rest ( momentum = 0 )
two photons of energy moving in opposite directions are produced
Conservation if electric charge : The positron and the electron have equal but opposite charge
After the interaction there is only two photons of energy ( zero charge )
Note : In pair production we calculated the minimum energy of the photon required to produce
an electron positron pair to be 1.02 x 106eV
As annihilation produces two  ray photons , the energy of each photon must be 0.51 x 10 6 eV
The PET scanner ( uses accelerated positrons ) to examine inside the brain
Antiprotons : The antiproton was discovered in 1955 by Segre and Chamberlain
Because the mass of the proton is so much bigger than the electron it
takes considerably more energy to produce a proton – antiproton pair
When a proton and an antiproton collide they do not annihilate each other
but produce particles that decay further .
Example proton – antiproton  pion – antipion ( these in turn decay )
p+ + p-+ + -
Problem: A photon ( ) strikes a hydrogen nucleus ( p+) and produces
a neutral lambda hyperon (0) and a K meson ( K+).
Calculate the minimum energy the photon requires for this reaction .
Mass of p+ = 1.007825 u
mass of photon () = Zero ( energy only )
+
Mass of K = 0.530344 u
mass of 0 = 1.198646 u
-27
( 1u = 1.66 x 10 kg )
( c = 3 x 10 8 )
+ p+ = K+ + 0
Mass of reactants ( + p+ ) = 0 + 1.007825 u = 1.007825 u
Mass of products ( K+ + 0 ) = ( 0.530344 ) + ( 1.198646 ) = 1.72899 u
Mass created( mass of products - mass of reactants )
1.72899
1.007825
= 0.721165 u
Convert u to kg( 0.721165 ) x ( 1.66x10-27 ) = 1.1971339 x 10 -27 Kg
E = mc2
E = ( 1.1971339 x 10 -27 ) x ( 3 x 10 8 ) 2 = 10.774205 x 10 -11Joules
Convert Joules to eV10.774205 x10-11
1.602 x 10 – 19
=
6.725 x 108eV
= 672 MeV
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Families of particles
All particles are now classifed as either Leptons or Hadrons
Leptons : Are not effectedby the strong nuclear force( feel only 3 of the 4 forces )
They are elementary ( fundamental ) particles , they cannot be subdivided
Examples : electron ( e-), tau ( ), muon (  ) their neutrinos and their antiparticles .
Hadrons :
Are effected by the strong nuclear force ( feel all 4 forces )
Hadrons are made of elementary particles called quarks
Hadrons are subdivided intoMesonsand Baryons
Mesons masses between the electron and the proton
Consist of a quark and an antiquark
Examples the pion ( +) and the kaon ( k+)
Baryons masses greater than or equal to the mass of the proton
Consist of 3 quarks or 3 antiquarks
Examples proton, antiproton, neutron, antineutron and sigma ( +)
Quarks Anti Quarks
Name
Up
Down
Strange
Charmed
Bottom
Top
Symbol Charge
u
+2/3 e
d
-1/3 e
s
-1/3 e
c
+2/3 e
b
-1/3 e
t
+2/3 e
Name
Anti -- Up
Anti-- Down
Anti -- Strange
Anti-- Charmed
Anti --Bottom
Anti --Top
Symbol
u
d
s
c
b
t
Charge
-2/3e
+1/3e
+1/3e
-2/3e
+1/3e
-2/3e
Matter
Leptons
Hadrons
e.g Electrons and neutrinos
Mesons
2 quarks
( quark and ananti-quark )
e.g. pions, kaons
Baryons
3 quarks
e.g. Protons and neutrons
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Search for the fundamental particles of matter
1. The ancient Greeks proposed the concept of the atom
2. Dalton( 1800s) said the atom was the fundamental particle of matter
3. Thompson( 1897 ) discovered the electron , it was named by G. Stoney
4. In 1905 Einstein predicted mass – energy would be conserved in nuclear reactions (E = mc2 )
5. Rutherford( 1917 ) reported the discovery of the proton.
6. Chadwick( 1932 ) discovered the neutron
7. Cockroft and Walton first experimental proof of Einstein`s E = mc2
8. However in some nuclear reaction in particular β decay
energy and momentum appeared not to be conserved
9. Pauli (1931) explained the apparent breach by proposing that another particle the neutrino ()
carried off the missing energy and momentum .
10. Cowan and Reines (1956 ) discovered the neutrino and antineutrino .
11. Paul Dirac (1928) predicted the existence of antimatter
12. In 1932 Anderson discovered the thepositron ( first antimatter )
13. Improved particle accelerators allowed the detection of a vast array of particles
referred to as the particle Zoo
14. Murray Gell – Mann( 1964 ) introduced the idea of quarks (named after a word in a James Joyce book )
Formula
Change in energy= change in mass x (speed of light )2E = mc2
Note : when using this formula energy must be in joules and the mass in Kg
( Energy in eV) x ( charge on the electron ) = Energy in joules
Energy in joules
Charge on the electron
1 u = 1.66 x 10 -27 kg
= energy in eV
( u = unified atomic mass unit )
Momentum = mass x velocity
m = mxv
Kinetic energy = ½ ( mass ) x ( velocity )2JoulesK.E. = ½ mv2 Joules
Velocity of a wave = frequency x wavelength c = f x 
meter second -1
= Hertz
meter
Energy = Planks constant x frequency
E = hf