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Gabija Safranavicius
SID: 25672341
Dec. 17th, 2014
WC: 2167
Programing Success
Introduction:
For decades, sociologists have been observing and recording statistical data that
indicates that not only is the socioeconomic gap between the incomes of the wealthy and
the poor growing, but that this divide is closely tied with race.1 In her article “Worsening
Wealth Inequality By Race” CNN journalist, Tami Luhby, exemplifies this by providing
statistics such as; “White Americans have 22 times more wealth then blacks – a gap that
nearly doubled during the Great Recession” and “The median household net worth for
whites was $110,729 in 2010, versus $4996 for blacks”. Luhby sources Roderick
Harrison, a senior research professor at Howard University, in his concern for future
socioeconomic status of the United States; “Having less wealth and home equity means it
will be more difficult for blacks and Hispanics to send their children to college, which
gives them a leg up on landing good jobs…(This) will further extend the wealth gap”.2
The widening of the wealth gap proves to be a growing concern as the number of bluecollar jobs in the United States decrease, and economy struggles to keep employment
rates up.3
As awareness increases for this growing concern, the focus shifts to secondary
education and how high schools can help in preparing African American students assert
Tami Luhby, “Worsening Wealth Inequality By Race” CNN Money, June 21, 2012,
accessed November 12, 2014, http://money.cnn.com/2012/06/21/news/economy/wealthgap-race/.
2
Ibid.
3
Michael Snyder, “Why Blue Collar Jobs Are Disappearing” Business Insider, January
17, 2012, accessed November 12, 2014, http://www.businessinsider.com/why-bluecollar-jobs-are-dissapearing-2012-1.
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economic mobility and financial stability. McClymonds High School and Oakland
Technical High School are two of Oakland’s most well known high schools, and though
they share students with similar ethnic and economic distributions, dramatic differences
can be found when comparing the enrollment status in postsecondary institutions of each
school’s graduating class. Specifically when looking at African Americans, Oakland
Technical enrolls 48.4% of it graduates in postsecondary institutions while McClymonds
does not enroll a single one. I believe that this difference can be attributed to the different
curriculums of the two schools, specifically in the fact that Oakland Technical offers
supplementary educational programs while McClymonds does not. I intend to provide
evidence that when schools offer supplementary programs, they increase their enrollment
of low-income students in colleges, universities, and other postsecondary institutions. I
additionally intend to suggest that instilling mandatory programs throughout high schools
nationally would act to minimize the socio-economic gap seen in the common culture
today by prompting the enrollment of more African American students in postsecondary
institutions.
Literary Review:
In attempt to minimize the expanding class divide; sociologists, politicians, and
economists have studied the perpetuating cycle tied between post secondary education
and economic advancement. As a response to such efforts, countless studies have shown
that higher education is directly correlated with an increase in socioeconomic status. The
Department of Treasury and the Department of Education collaborated to confirm this by
releasing a statement declaring that; “The data and analysis confirm that higher education
is critical for socioeconomic advancement and is an important driver of economic
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mobility”4. This widely accepted conclusion leads a majority of experts to believe that the
economic advancement of African Americans as a general demographic can be motivated
by an increase in their enrollment in higher education. Studies have confirmed that
college enrollment is often times especially low in low-income, urban areas, where
schools suffer from gross under-funding and are primarily composed of minority
students. One such study sponsored by the US Treasury, Education Department that
states that high school students categorized with a “bottom income level” do not pursue
any form of postsecondary education 56.1% of the time 5. Additionally a study executed
by Martha D. Bailey and Susan M. Dynarsk shows that in the last twenty years,
inequality in college attainment due to income has increased in accordance with the
growth of the socio-economic gap; “More than 1 in 2 young adults from high-income
families had a bachelor’s degree by age 25, versus little more than 1 in 10 young adults
from low-income families6”. These types of statistics indicate that without some formal
type of supplementary programs, social mobility is becoming less and less attainable to
the average African American student.
In order to address this social trend, several studies and experiments have
attempted find and shape the variables that could function to increase college and other
post-secondary school enrollment in low-income schools. One such study done by Dr.
“The Economic Case for Higher Education,” United States Treasury, Education
Department (2012): 1. Accessed November 14, 2014. doi: press-center/pressreleases/documents/the economics of higher education_report clean.pdf
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Akerielm, Berger, Hooker, and Donald Wise, “Factors Related To College Enrollment,”
Office of the Under Secretary U.S. Department of Education Washington, DC. (1998):
37. Accessed December 1, 2014. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED421053.pdf
6
“Increasing College Opportunity for Low-Income Student,” The Executive Office of the
President. (2014): 13. Accessed November 14, 2014.
http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/white_house_report_on_increasing_c
ollege_opportunity_for_low-income_students.pdf
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Monica Martinez found that; “Among the predictors of college-going behavior, academic
rigor and strong social and academic support were the most crucial predictors of a
student’s successful enrollment in, and completion of, postsecondary education.”7. She
goes on to relay in explicit detail the that the supplementary education programs she
studied (America’s Choice, Advancement Via Individual Determination, Coalition of
Essential Schools, First Things First, High Schools That Work, Talent Development High
Schools, GE Foundation College Bound) served to emphasize academic advancement in
a smaller learning community, and they provided the “social and academic support” that
her studies proved effective in motivating African American students to enroll in higher
education. Dr. Martinez writes:
“Each (of the programs) seeks to provide students with more personalized
learning experiences, increased rigor, increased relevancy, and more social support.
Smaller learning environments in which teachers are able to know their students well
prevent students from falling through the cracks, both academically and socially (and)…
to focus on the individual learning styles and needs of each student and to engage them in
learning… each student can be given help in areas that would otherwise prevent him or
her from succeeding in academically rigorous courses” (27).
In listing the benefits of specialized programs, Dr. Martinez concludes her
research by claiming that these particular benefits are “especially ideal” for minority,
low-income students who statistically have encountered more significant challenges in
Klopott, Monica Martinez, “The Link between High School Reform and College Access
and Success for Low-Income and Minority Youth,” American Youh Policy Forum and
Ways to College Network, (2005): 1. Accessed November 14, 2014.
http://p20.utsa.edu/images/uploads/Articles%202.pdf#page=10&zoom=auto,-38,828
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attaining the academic foundations that function to mobilize students towards postsecondary education then other cohorts. 8
Another study that explored the effects of specialized programs on post-secondary
school enrollment that was conducted by Janet Quint, surveyed the effects of three
separate programs (Career Academies, First Things First, and Talent Development) in
2500 low preforming, urban and rural high schools throughout the nation. Quint
emphasized the importance of these specialized programs in low-income areas by stating
that; “There is suggestive evidence that student achievement may be enhanced by
profession development activities that involve teachers working together to align
curricula with standards, review assignment for rigor, and discuss ways to make the
classroom more engaging.”9 Quint implies that the implementation of government
mandated programs would not only increase student academic achievement and
postsecondary enrollment, but that it would also result in the cultivation of other skills
tied to advancement in economic status. Her studies show that students in the Career
Academy had “increased rates of enrollment in career-related courses but did not reduce
students’ academic course-taking” and that these students were “more likely to work
while they were in high school, and they were more likely to work in jobs that were
connected to school and that offered opportunities to learn new skills.10” This provides
cohesive evidence that the instillation of such programs would not only lead to economic
Klopott, Monica Martinez, “The Link between High School Reform and College Access
and Success for Low-Income and Minority Youth,” American Youh Policy Forum and
Ways to College Network, (2005): 27. Accessed November 14, 2014.
http://p20.utsa.edu/images/uploads/Articles%202.pdf#page=10&zoom=auto,-38,828
9
Quint, Janet, “Meeting Five Critical Challenges of High School Reform,” MDRC,
(2006): (18). Accessed November 16, 2014.http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED491634.pdf
10
Quint, Janet, “Meeting Five Critical Challenges of High School Reform,” MDRC,
(2006): 68. Accessed November 16, 2014.http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED491634.pdf
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mobility through college enrollment, but that they also increase productive work habits as
well.
Further suggestion of the benefits of specialized programs for African American
and other low-income minority students is exemplified through the “Child First” new
school initiative. The campaign for smaller, specialized schools located “in
neighborhoods characterized by low socio-economics and families of color” in New York
City has been met with extensive studies that indicate significant positive response.11
WestEd’s study for the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation states that the new schools
were focused on; “promoting academic rigor, ensuring academic content was relevant to
students, ensuring strong relationships between teachers and students, and preparing and
motivating students for post-secondary options.12 The effects of the program were found
to be successful as 81% of students that applied to colleges after graduating from one of
the fourteen new schools, 85% were accepted and enrolled, even though the district was
previously ranked 48th of 50 school districts just two years before the program was
implemented.13 The study heavily implies that such dramatic results are not limited to
New York City, and could potentially cause monumental growth of the economic system
of United States if applied to high schools nationally.
Research Methodology:
Corbett, Huebner, and Kate Phillippo. “Rethinking High School,” WestED for the Bill
and Melinda Gates Foundation. (2006): 5. Accessed November 16, 2014.
http://www.wested.org/online_pubs/gf-07-01.pdf
12
Ibid, 11
13
Ibid, 5
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To provide finalized evidence that supplementary programs will increase African
American students to enroll in post-secondary education (and thereby increase their
economic mobility), I plan to conduct a longitudinal study at both McClymonds High
School and Oakland Technical High School. My studies will differ from the ones I have
sourced above in the sense that I plan to observe and then apply different characteristics
in order to pinpoint just how effective supplementary programs have the potential to be. I
plan to specify the exact characteristics that a program can provide that would lead to
socio-economic mobility through post-secondary school enrollment in African American
youth. I plan to start at Oakland Tech where I will survey each of the specialized
programs (Bio Tech, Computer Science and Technology, Engineering, Fashion Arts and
Design, Health, Paideia (interdisciplinary social sciences), Performing Arts). While
observing them I intend to record variables such as: student and teacher relationships,
student attitudes regarding coursework, student attendance, student exhibited work ethic,
rigor of academic coursework, as well as any additional variables that seem to increase
positive academic and career habits. A literary review conducted by Jennifer Lee Schultz
and Dan Mueller specifically cites that: demanding academics, balance of academic and
social support, early engagement, involvement/encouragement of family members, help
with college applications, comprehensive and long-term support, systematic reform, and
financial assistance all can be considered key characteristics featured in the current most
effective programs nationally.14 Through my studies and recordings I intend to calculate
Mueller, Jennifer Schultz, “Effectiveness of programs to improve postsecondary
education enrollment and success of underrepresented youth” NorthStar Education
Finance, (2006): 14-15. Accessed November 17, 2014. doi: WilderResearch/Publications/Studies/Effectiveness of Programs to Improve Postsecondary…
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how each program applies these characteristics, and how they define the specialized,
goal-oriented community they provides to their pupils.
Additionally, I will observe the progression of students each year at Oakland
Tech, and I will record the ethnic and socio-economic distribution in each subjective
grade while considering their corresponding enrollment in post-secondary education. I
then intend to analyze which programs produce the greatest percentage of low-income
African American graduates enrolling in post-secondary school and then correlate this
data with notable variables from each program. Through this extensive study I would
attempt to define the foundational variables that shape a successful educational program.
I would additionally explore the effectiveness of the programs by establishing a control
ratio; I would compare the number of African American students pursuing postsecondary education that were enrolled in the program, with number of African American
students who were not. Because these programs are not mandatory, Oakland Tech is
particularly valuable setting in that it provides a uniform setting where the control and
experimental groups are subject to less bias then when they compared in different
schools.
The next portion of the study would bring my findings to McClymonds High
School, where my study becomes much less focused on measuring and recording
statistical data, and much more focused on experimenting with the reported positive
attributes of the programs from Oakland Tech. I plan to create a program that takes the
variables recorded as effective for post-secondary enrollment from each of Oakland
Tech’s programs, and to then create and implement a cohesive program on a random,
…Education Enrollment and Success of Underrepresented Youth/Effectiveness of
Programs to Improve Postsecondary Education Enrollment, Summary.pdf.
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consenting sample of 30-50 students at McClymonds. I would not limit this program to
African American students, though my studies would be focused on seeing if such a
program could raise African American enrollment rates in post-secondary education.
The extensive studies on both Oakland Technical and McClymond High School
would not means prove that instilling supplementary educational programs nationally
would minimize the growing racial/socio-economic divide in the United States. What the
study could provide is a measure of the effectiveness of such programs in shifting
attitudes and expectations for post-secondary enrollment from the perspective of lowerincome African American students. Additionally this study would provide a foundation
for creating effect programs in encouraging enrollment in post-secondary education.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, there is striking evidence that the racial disparities between colored
minorities and whites that are associated with the socio-economic gap can be alleviated
through the promotion of post-secondary education. Extensive research has shown that
post-secondary education increases economic mobility and such studies supplement the
idea that making higher education more accessible to all races and classes is an essential
step for the economic progress in the United States. I have sourced studies that indicate
that an influential way to promote this economic progress is by implementing mandatory,
specialized programs in high schools nationally. These programs function to cultivate an
environment for successful skills and positive attitudes towards extending one’s
education. Through my personal research I hope to find not only success in mobilizing
African American students to increased enrollment rates in post-secondary education, but
I also hope to formally establish some of the key characteristics that make a
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supplementary program successful. I hope to motivate education reformers to see the
benefits of such programs, and to promote equality through education in the current
economic state of the United States.