Patterns of Continuity and Change Over Time: Historical thinking involves the ability to recognize, analyze and evaluate the dynamics of historical continuity and change over periods of time of varying lengths, as well as relating these patterns to larger historical processes or themes
To what extent does US policy in environmental preservation represent continuity and change over time of 1892 and 1970?
The issue of environmental preservation is one of the most widely debated today, and is now absolutely integral to American life and politics. However, its origins are fairly recent in US History, starting only with Teddy Roosevelt’s
Progressive reform in the late 19th century. Despite his considerable effort to encourage conservation, the movement was hardly at the center of policy until the 1970s up to today. But leading up to the 70s, a significant environmental movement based in the people began to form, leading to the subsequent reforms. Though from 1892-1970 the focus on preserving the environment to conserve needed resources remained crucial, policy in preservation significantly shifted away from dealing with the effects of expansion and was increasingly influenced by popular sentiment.
Conservation of resources is perhaps the one true constant of policy for environmental preservation. Teddy Roosevelt adopted with his conservation movement the philosophy of Gifford Pinchot, which dictated that nature needed to be efficiently utilized rather than wasted through exploitation. In this way his policy was not centered on protecting nature for the sake of its beauty and significance to the world and future conditions (as preservationists were). In fact, it was more focused around ensuring that as nature was confronted it was resourcefully controlled. Using this philosophy, Roosevelt passed several measures to use new land effectively. With the Newlands Act of 1902, money was dedicated for irrigation projects; Roosevelt set up several dams across the country as well. He also set up the Forest Service and Bureau of Reclamation to protect the dwindling forests. Workers were focused on multiple-resource management, which would combine different actions on the same land for maximum efficiency. This strain of policy was extended further by the future actions of relative Franklin Roosevelt. FDR launched several projects as part of the New Deal that focused on developing resources of certain areas, such as the

Tennessee Valley Authority and the Soil Conservation Service. The TVA in particular posed the opportunity to produce hydroelectric power by having the federal government take control of nature. Most all actions taken by the government on the environment were thus influenced by effective use of the resources (which almost always required a degree of preservation).
Though conservation remained at the center of policy, the occasions to act to protect the environment changed significantly from dealing with the effects of westward expansion to developing internal lands under changing conditions.
When Teddy Roosevelt came to power, the US had relatively recently reached its limits of expansion, and migration to the west were continuing. With the discovery of new land came confrontation with vast expanses of rich wildlife, and it was this new and undisturbed land that held the most promise for resource extraction. Teddy was thereby influenced in his conservation efforts by the richness of the new lands. He was also motivated by a popular desire to preserve the sentiments of the frontier, which were often traced to the image of America as individualistic and democratic. Once the west had solidified as a fully developed part of America, the direct influences of government action came not from expansion but internal calls for improvement. FDR’s New Deal programs focused on developing land throughout the country (or in the case of the TVA, in
Tennessee), but with the disappearance of the frontier there was no influence of frontier life and wastefulness in his actions. FDR also responded to events like the
Dust Bowl by relieving some of its environmental effects, and the Civilian
Conservation Corps attempted to improve the overall environmental health of the country. Future policy was also significantly influenced by the alarm of disasters rather than expansion; in addition to the Dust Bowl, events like the Santa Barbara
Oil Spill in the 1960s raised awareness about the harmful effects on the environment.
By far, the most significant change in policy for environmental preservation came with its source within society, as it increasingly shifted to a popular movement. At the start of Teddy’s conservationist movement, the general public hardly cared about the environment. Those that had gone west had done so solely to make a living and capture a sense of adventure, and were content with

destroying nature along the way. Thus, Teddy’s actions were largely a government-initiated response to popular indifference. Even those organizations that were dedicated to preservation had strong governmental ties, such as John
Muir and the Sierra Club. As the 20th century progressed, however, the public began to become more and more dedicated to protection of the environment.
FDR’s actions had brought the issue to public attention to spur the grassroots environmental movement after WWII, but disasters and new influential writing made the people even more aware of the grand scope of harming the environment. New information from ecologists explained the intricacies of ecosystems and how they are invaluable to the health of the planet and the future health and existence of humans. Most important was Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring, which exposed the dangerous effects of pesticide use on the environment and humans. At the end of the period from 1892-1970, the popular movement for environmentalism was stronger than ever, as the first Earth Day was celebrated in 1970. Between FDR and 1970 very little policy was actually passed, but the popular support for environmentalism was singlehandedly responsible for the extensive government action to protect the environment after
1970.
US policy on environmentalism reflected continuity in the focus on conservation on resources by way of preservation, but underwent significant change as focus shifted away from developing new lands to developing existing lands and the environmental movement became increasingly based in the people.
The skill of continuity and change proves essential in analyzing this policy, as the differing conditions and awareness surrounding the issue have accompanied some persisting goals as the movement has progressed. The continuity and change in environmental policy fits into the trend towards protection that has continued into today, while also following close ties with the trend of increasingly harmful practices in regards to the environment (brought about by industrialization and nuclear developments over the last two centuries). The environmental movement saw its greatest achievements came after 1970, with the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency and the passage of the
Clean Air Act and the Endangered Species Act. Controlling climate change has

also been a significant goal of President Obama, and serious legislation may still be produced before his term ends for protection of the environment. Thus, environmental policy since 1970 has followed the increasing focus on the environment established from 1892-1970.
To what extent did Cold War era presidents from Harry Truman in 1945 to Ronald Reagan in 1989
maintain continuity and foster change in American foreign policy?
After WWII ended, the US and Soviet Union had very different goals in regards to recovery efforts in Europe and beyond. While the US sought the growth of democracy, the rise of autonomy for Eastern European countries, and the reunification of Germany, the Soviet Union wanted to spread communist ideals, control eastern Europe, and keep Germany divided and weak. Throughout the cold war presidencies, continuities such as the shared policy of containment
(and therefore the interference in other countries), the desire to be ahead in the nuclear arms and space races, and the policy of providing aid to countries threatened by communism remained. However, changes in policy, such as greater cooperation between the US and Soviet Union, and economic and diplomatic contact with communist countries ultimately helped the cold war come to an end. Thus, the many continuities were key in perpetuating the Cold
War, while the changes that ensued in the later years of the Cold War were key to ending it.
Harry Truman was the first President to have to deal with the threat of the
Soviet Union after WWII, so his policies set a precedent that future Presidents would follow or break. Truman’s policy of containment was a continuity throughout the Cold War period, as it called for the preservation and expansion of democracy over the evil grasp of communism. As a result of this policy, Truman created the Marshall Plan, designed to provide economic assistance to eastern
European countries as a way to ensure that they would stave off the threat of communism. This same idea of relief as a veiled bribe to not fall to communism is a continuity that is evident in Eisenhower’s support of funding Hungary and its radio stations when they were attempting to revolt against the USSR. Thus,

containment was an important continuity that aimed to show that capitalism and democracy represented power and influence.
Another continuity was the US’s interference in other countries through military coups or assistance. This was a more drastic reflection of the policy of containment, as it required greater American means than just money. An early example of this interventionism was the Korean War, which saw the struggle between the democratic south and the communist north. In the end, the two factions split at he 38th parallel, with North Korea as the communist nation and
South Korea as America’s democratically. A continuity of military assistance that draws many parallels to the Korean War is the Vietnam War, which began under
President Johnson after the Tonkin Gulf Incident, in which northern Vietnamese ships assaulted a US ship. This war represents a continuation in policy in that the theory behind the war was that if Vietnam fell to communism, neighboring
Southeast Asian countries would also fall. It is important to note that the US was ultimately unsuccessful in the Vietnam War, which represented a bit of a change in that US foreign policy would no longer involve such a commitment to other countries in terms of a prolonged war effort. Continuity can be seen in the
American-backed coup in Iran, which was to protect American interests in oil supplies, but also stop Iran from turning to the USSR for monetary assistance. In all of these incidents, the US intervened with military threat or force, thereby continuing the policy of stopping the spread of communism at all costs.
A last continuity is the continued competition in the space and nuclear arms race. During Eisenhower’s presidency, the USSR exploded their first hydrogen bomb, sending it ahead of the US in the arms race. The competition continued when the USSR launched the first ever artificial satellite into space with a living dog inside. This led Eisenhower to create NASA in order for the US to regain a lead. This continued fight for space and arms supremacy led to the
Apollo Missions in 1969, which successfully landed a man on the moon, putting the US back at the forefront. This continuity through many of the Cold War presidencies then represented a change in policy under Nixon, when the SALT I and ABM Treaty was signed as an attempt to slow the arms race. This change

marked a new direction for US foreign policy in trying to reduce the tensions and threat through diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union.
Another change in foreign policy came under President Carter, who created a Human Rights Policy so as to keep American true to its morals as a champion for equal and fair rights for all. He accomplished this policy by suspending aid or criticizing a nation’s practices. Whereas previous foreign policy had solely focused on the threat of Communism, Carter expanded the views as a result of less threat between communist nations and the US, which allowed him to focus on other things. For example, the US stopped trade with South Africa as a show of disapproval of their policy of apartheid. This ultimately helped end apartheid and represents a change in policy because apartheid was not related to the threat of communism, which had been the sole focus of previous foreign policy.
A last change in US foreign policy during the cold war was the greater communications between the US and communist nations. For example, President
Nixon made a monumental trip to China that helped to normalize relations and even create a trade relationship. This was the first time that a president had traveled to a communist nation and that trade was facilitated with a communist nation. The effects of this change can still be felt today in that America and China have a prevalent trade relationship that neither country would economically be equipped to live without. This represented a change because the US was willing to have contact with communist nations despite being against communism.
The foreign policy of the US in regards to the Cold War represented the gradual shift that allowed the Cold War to eventually end in the resignation of
Gorbachev in 1991. Therefore, underlying continuities such as the policy of containment, the use of intervention to stop the communist threat, and the space and arms race made the Cold War tense, while changes such as greater diplomatic relations, tempering of the arms race through treaties, and a shift toward other foreign issues helped reduce conflict. The shift toward a focus on human rights protection is similar to the US disdain for the humanitarian violations in Syria that lead to the US not respecting the ruler Assad and the aid the US has sent to African countries fighting the Ebola epidemic. Russia continues

to create tensions today by trying to gain control of the Ukraine and Crimea, which are similar to previous USSR aggressions in the region.