Governing Empires: The Roman and Han Empires
A unit created under the direction of the UC Berkeley History-Social Science Project.
Alison Waterman
Trenton Wilson
Teacher, Orinda Intermediate School
Graduate Student, Department of History
Orinda Union School District
University of California, Berkeley
Find online: ucbhssp.berkeley.edu/globalhistory2015
2014 © UC Regents
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
Unit Overview
This lesson was created for the first session in the Movement of Ideas in Global History series, cosponsored by the Institute of European Studies and the Institute of East Asia Studies. Through
collaboration between a classroom teacher and graduate student of history, we endeavored to introduce
a comparative framework for thinking about the 6th grade curriculum. This lesson, comparing governance
and administration in the Roman and Han Empires, was developed to be integrated into an existing unit
on Roman History. The lesson is envisioned as one, among several, that would be part of a week-long
focus on the establishment and expansion of the Roman Empire.
The global history seminar series aims to provide classroom teachers with background knowledge to
contextualize historical content, along with learning strategies to help students access and analyze
primary and secondary sources as they study the past. It is supported through a grant from the UC
Berkeley Area Studies Programs: Institute of European Studies, Institute of East Asia Studies, Institute of
Slavic, East European and Eurasian Studies, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Center for Middle Eastern
Studies, and the Center for South Asia Studies.
-----------------------------------------------UNIT OVERVIEW
Unit Topic: Ancient Rome (Assuming previous knowledge of the Qin and Han Empires.)
Unit Focus Question: How did Rome expand from a tiny republic in central Italy to a thriving center of a
vast empire that encircled the Mediterranean Sea and included most of Europe?
Unit Teaching Thesis: Rome expanded from a small republic to a vast empire through its disciplined
army, which conquered the Mediterranean world and turned those lands into Roman provinces while
maintaining the Pax Romana. Engineering and economic developments tied the empire together as
Roman coin was traded for foreign resources. Augustus employed religious symbols and traditional
Roman values to establish legitimacy, secure his political authority, and effectively govern a vast territory
that ultimately became one of the world’s largest and most influential empires. Like Rome, the Han
Empire covered vast territories and required effective administration to maintain government control.
However, the degree to which power was concentrated in the central government differed, as did the
extent to which the central government involved itself in local government.
History/Social Science Standard:
6.7 Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures during the
development of Rome.
3. Identify the location of and the political and geographic reasons for the growth of Roman territories
and expansion of the empire, including how the empire fostered economic growth through the use of
currency and trade routes.
4. Discuss the influence of Julius Caesar and Augustus in Rome's transition from republic to empire.
1
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
Unit Overview
LESSON OVERVIEW
Historical Context: The Han and Roman Empires rose to power between the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE
and ultimately governed half the world’s population.
Lesson Focus Question: What do these diverse sources tell us about the differences between how these vast
empires ruled their territories?
Teaching Thesis: While both empires covered vast territories and required effective administration to
maintain government control, the degree to which power was concentrated in the central government
differed, as did the extent to which the central government involved itself in local government.
Qin/Han Bureaucracy: The Qin and Han empires established enormous bureaucratic systems to rule
their territories. This was different than the system of local control used by the Zhou. The Zhou system
gave a great deal of independence to local aristocratic rulers. Some of these rulers became too powerful
for the center to control, which lead to constant warfare for hundreds of years. The Qin and Han hoped to
avoid this so they established the commandery/county system (other translation=district/county) and
made officials accountable to the central government. At its height, the Han had at least 130,000 salaried
officials working in its government. Elites were encouraged to join the system through civil service.
Emperor: Unlike in Rome, the Han emperor does not appear in statues or on coins. Proclamations and
laws are issued in his name, but average Han citizens had no way of seeing him except through these laws
and his official representatives.
Roman Administration: After conquering many formerly independent and culturally distinct realms in
the Mediterranean world, the Romans established control through a mixture of cooperation with local
elites and military power. The whole system was based on convincing powerful people in the provinces
that they could benefit from Roman rule. Networks of mutual benefit were established. There were only
about 300 salaried officials in the Empire. The rest of the administrative work, including tax collecting,
was left to informal associations and contractors in each locale. Emperor: In the Roman Empire, the
emperor shows up everywhere. His face and achievements are on coins. Thousands of statues are visible
throughout the empire. Residents in far-flung regions of the empire are expected to participate in
sacrifices for the emperor. Legal decisions, however, were sometimes made in consultation with the
emperor, but there was a great deal of flexibility and informality in the application of Roman law and
precedents in the provinces.
PART 1: Comparing Coins to Analyze the Differences Between Roman and Han Empires
Focus Question: How did the Roman and Han rulers use coins to convey the role of government to
their subjects?
Goal: Students will analyze the message Han and Roman rulers communicated through coins.
Lesson Components:
1. Read a secondary source (excerpt) on the use of coins in Rome & Han Empires.
2. Describe and compare Roman and Han coins (Lesson).
3. Speculate how the differences observed in the coins might reflect the role of government.
2
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
Unit Overview
PART 2: Comparing Sources to Analyze the Differences between the Roman and Han Empires
Focus Question: How did the Roman and Han rulers administer (govern) the provinces?
Goal: Using primary sources, compare the differences in how the Roman and Han governments
administered the provinces of their empires.
Lesson Components:
1. Read five excerpts from primary source documents:
Han:
a. Source A: Ordinances on Fords and Passes (private metal)
b. Source B: Ordinances on Fords and Passes (price of horses)
c. Source C: Edict of Monthly Ordinances for the Four Seasons
Roman:
d. Source D: Letters of Pliny (public bath at Prusa)
e. Source E: Letters of Pliny (sentencing of slave recruits)
Comparative:
f. Source H: Number of Salaried Officials Chart
2. Complete Analyzing Sources (worksheet)
Final Assessment: Using what they have learned from reading primary and secondary sources and from
analyzing coins, students will make an argument for why the Roman and Han governments administered
their empires so differently.
3
UNIT MAP
Last Unit
ANCIENT GREECE
Geography & Early Romans
 Italy: peninsula in Mediterranean filled
with rolling hills, rivers, and fertile soil
 Rome: city along Tiber River in central
Italy (story of Remus & Romulus)
 Etruria: from 600 BC Etruscan
monarchs ruled Rome; contributed
alphabet and building techniques,
created senate
changed types of
government through the…
Development of the Republic
 509 BC – Romans overthrew Etruscan king
and created their own republic
 Tripartite (3 part government) – each
branch had distinct purpose (rule, laws,
courts); model for US government
 Senate/Forum
 Patricians vs Plebeians – balance of power
created between elite and commoner
 Twelve Tables/Law of Nations – basis for
US legal system
Current Unit
Next Unit
SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY
ANCIENT ROME: REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE
is about
established by
how a city rose to become the
center of an empire that ruled
over the Mediterranean world
and influenced Western
Civilization’s government,
engineering, and beyond.
Endures
through…
Roman Cultural Influences on Western Civ.
 Influenced by Greek culture; adopted and
adapted Greek arts
 Mythology – similar to Greeks
 Art – realistic (not ideal) subjects, mosaics,
sculpture, architecture
 Language – Latin is the basis for modern
European languages & integral part of
English (prefix, root words)
 Modern calendar, Roman numerals
 Literature - emulated Greeks
built power through
Establishment & Expansion of the Empire
 Punic Wars against Carthage led to control of
Mediterranean region
 Expansion included Egypt, Eastern Europe,
and Gaul (Caesar & Augustus)
 Developed new forms of administration to rule
vast empire (Augustus)
 Roman army maintained presence in colonies
and conquered lands to keep control
 Trade established connections within the
Empire and with non-Roman peoples
Focus Question: How did Rome expand from a tiny republic in central Italy to a thriving center of a vast empire that
encircled the Mediterranean Sea and included most of Europe?
Unit Teaching Thesis: Rome expanded from a small republic to a vast empire through its disciplined army, which
conquered the Mediterranean world and turned those lands into Roman provinces while maintaining the Pax Romana.
Engineering and economic developments tied the empire together as Roman coin was traded for foreign resources. Augustus
employed religious symbols and traditional Roman values to establish legitimacy, secure his political authority, and
effectively govern a vast territory that ultimately became one of the world’s largest and most influential empires. Like Rome,
the Han Empire covered vast territories and required effective administration to maintain government control. However, the
degree to which power was concentrated in the central government differed, as did the extent to which the central
government involved itself in local government.
4
Comparing Rome to Han Empire
 Han and Roman Empires rose to power
between 2nd & 1st c. BCE and ultimately
governed half world’s population, yet
different forms of government emerged to
administer their vast territories
 Both empires used money in the form of
coins: Roman coins depicted the emperor;
Han coins displayed only coin’s value
 Roman empire employed 300 officials;
Han employed 130,000
 Effect on provincial government differed

Thinking Skills
 Observing

Analyzing

Inferring

Summarizing
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
Unit Plan
Week 1: The Roman Republic (Ancient Civs., Ch. 11)
Section 1: Geography and the Rise of Rome (AC pp. 324-331)
Focus Question: How did Rome’s geography help it become a major power in the ancient world?
Section 2: Government and Society (AC pp. 332-337)
Focus Question: How did Rome’s government and laws help create a stable society?
Section 3: The Late Republic (AC pp. 338-343)
Focus Question: How did Rome’s growth and expansion during the later period of Republic lead to
war and political crises?
Week 2: The Roman Empire (Ancient Civs., Ch. 12)
Section 1: From Republic to Empire (AC pp.352-256)
Focus Question: How did Julius Caesar and Augustus Caesar lead Rome’s transition from a republic to
an empire?
Section 2: A Vast Empire (AC pp. 358-365)
Focus Question: How did the Empire grow and change after Augustus became emperor?
Section 3: Rome’s Legacy (AC pp. 366-372)
Focus Question: What features of Roman culture were copied by later civilizations and continue to
influence our lives today?
Culminating Question: The Han and Roman Empires rose to power between the 2nd and 1st centuries
BCE and ultimately governed half the world’s population. How do the different forms of government that
emerged to administer their vast territories reflect each empire’s history and culture?
Week 3: Rome and Christianity (Ancient Civs. Ch. 13)
Section 1: Religion in the Roman Empire (AC pp.380-383)
Focus Question: Why did the Roman Empire come into conflict with Judaism, despite its acceptance
of many other religions?
Section 2: Origins of Christianity (AC pp. 384-391)
Focus Question: How did Christianity spread after Jesus’s death?
Section 3: The Early Christian World (AC pp. 392-395)
Focus Question: How and when did Christianity become the official religion of the Roman Empire?
Week 4: The Fall of Rome (Ancient Civs. Ch. 14)
Section 1: Fall of the Western Empire (AC pp.408-413)
Focus Question: What factors caused the Roman Empire to split and the western half to collapse?
Section 2: The Byzantine Empire (AC pp. 414-420)
Focus Question: What happened to the eastern half of the Roman Empire after it split?
5
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 1
PART 1
Comparing Coins to Analyze the Differences between Roman and Han Empires
Focus Question: How did the Roman and Han rulers use coins to convey the role of government to
their subjects?
Goal: Students will analyze the message Han and Roman rulers communicated through coins.
Lesson Components:
Examining two paired sources (one secondary and one primary).
1. Read a secondary source (excerpt) on the use of coins in Rome & Han Empires.
2. Describe and compare Roman and Han coins (Lesson).
3. Considering the information in the secondary source, speculate how the differences
observed in the coins might reflect the role of government.
Common Core State Standards:
RH: Reading Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Grades 6-8
1. Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources.
7. Integrate visual information (e.g. in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with
other information in print and digital texts.
9. Analyze the relationship between a primary and secondary source on the same topic.
6
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 1
Historical Argument – A Secondary Source
Excerpt from Chang’an 26 BCE: An Augustan Age in China,
Edited by MICHAEL NYLAN and GRIET VANKEERBERGHEN, 2015
Focus Question: How did the Roman and Han rulers use coins to convey the role of government to their
subjects?
. . . Roman historians have long assumed that many groups in the Roman empire . . . would
never have embraced [accepted] the idea of Romanness, had it not been for the ubiquitous
[widespread] presence of Roman emperors’ heads on coins and of Roman emperors’
statues in the forums of every major town.1 Some members of the Han court beheld [saw]
examples of coins bearing such images from the Mediterranean empires, and they were
not going to imitate the foreigners’ willingness to put their leader’s images on surfaces
liable to casual handling [likely to be used by many people].
Document Analysis
1. What difference between Roman and Han coins is mentioned in this source?
2. According to historians, what effect did Roman coins and statues have on the people
Rome conquered?
3. What reason does the author give for the Han’s unwillingness to put images of their
emperors’ heads on coins?
4. How does this source help you answer the focus question?
1
Zanker 1988.
7
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 1
Name__________________________________________________________________
Date________________________
Class______________
Analyzing Coins to Compare the Han and the Roman Empires
Focus Question: How did the Roman and Han rulers use coins to convey the role of government to their subjects (those they ruled)?
Primary Source: Roman Coins
1. Evidence (Observations): Describe what you see on the coins; use
specific, detailed language.
Octavian (Augustus) coin series. Side 1 (top row): Portraits of
goddesses --Pax, Venus, and Victoria. Side 2 (bottom row):
Octavian addressing army; giving signal to attack; triumphal
statue (Ca. 30 B.C.).
2. Message (Interpretations): What did these coins “tell”
ancient people about their rulers? ___________________________
3. The Roman coins show _____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________,
______________________________________________________________________
which tells us that ________________________________________________________________
What did rulers want their subjects to know or believe about
the government? __________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________.
8
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 1
Focus Question: How did the Roman and Han rulers use coins to convey the role of government to their subjects (those they ruled)?
Primary Source: Han Coins
1. Evidence (Observations): Describe what you see on the
coins; use specific, detailed language
This is a typical Han coin, first issued in 118 B.C. This kind of coin is
called the wuzhu coin. Wuzhu is a unit of measure equivalent to 4 grams,
which is the weight of this coin. All early Chinese coins have a hole in the
center, which was used to string them together. Most have square holes.
"Wuzhu Coin Issued by Emperor Xuandi," accessed January 15,
2015, http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/cm/w/wuzhu_coin
_issued_by_emperor_x.aspx
2. Message (Interpretations): What did these coins “tell” ancient
people about their rulers? ________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
What did rulers want their subjects to know or believe about the
government? ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
3. The Han coins show ______________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________,
which tells us that ____________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
1. What differences do you notice between the Roman and Han coins?
2. How does your analysis of the Roman and Han coins help you answer the focus question?
9
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 2
PART 2
Comparing Texts to Analyze the Differences between the Roman and Han Empires
Focus Question: How did the Roman and Han rulers administer (govern) the provinces?
Goal: Using primary sources, compare the differences in how the Roman and Han governments
administered the provinces of their empires.
Lesson Components:
1. Read five excerpts from primary source documents:
Han:
a. Source A: Ordinances on Fords and Passes (private metal)
b. Source B: Ordinances on Fords and Passes (price of horses)
c. Source C: Edict of Monthly Ordinances for the Four Seasons
Roman:
d. Source D: Letters of Pliny (public bath at Prusa)
e. Source E: Letters of Pliny (sentencing of slave recruits)
Comparative:
f. Source H: Number of Salaried Officials Chart
2. Complete Analyzing Sources (worksheet)
Common Core State Standards:
RH: Reading Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Grades 6-8
1. Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources.
7. Integrate visual information (e.g. in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with
other information in print and digital texts.
9. Analyze the relationship between a primary and secondary source on the same topic.
WHST: Writing Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Grades 6-8
1. Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content.
10
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 2
Source A
Source: Ordinances on Fords and Passes (private metal)
From excavated bamboo strips from Zhangjiashan, 186 BCE
An imperial decision instructs the Censor-in-chief: ‘Let orders be given to all the passes to
the effect that it is forbidden to leave a pass with private metal. If there are those who
enter with metal tools, the pass officials are to carefully make a record of them in a
register. When they leave the pass, the tools are again to be checked against this register
before they are allowed to leave. As regards tools to be registered, ornaments and things
worn on the body are not subject to this ordinance.
Document Analysis
1. What was the purpose of this ordinance (law) from the imperial government to the
Censor-in-chief?
2. How was the Censor-in-chief instructed to prevent people from leaving passes with
‘private metal’?
3. What does this document tell you about how Han rulers governed?
11
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 2
Source B
Source: Ordinances on Fords and Passes (price of horses)
From excavated bamboo strips from Zhangjiashan, 186 BCE
The Chancellor of State put forward the following opinion in a court deliberation: in cases
where the commanderies [districts] outside the passes purchase horses that the account
clerks are to present to the central government when they submit the annual
commandery statistics, each Governor in the commandery that buys the horses is to
report the number of horses to the Chamberlain for the Capital or the Commandery
Governor where they are to be bought. The Chamberlain for the Capital or the
Commandery Governor are to carefully register the markings and colors, the age and the
height of the horses. They are to transmit this information to the Governor and, further,
are to make a visa and report it to the fords and passes. The fords and passes are to verify
the number and characteristics of the transiting horses according to the passports before
letting them exit or enter. All those who falsely report the exiting of horses or, when the
horses should re-enter and they do not, are to be sentenced according to the Ordinances
concerning the False Price of Horses Exceeding the Fair Market Price. Rewards are to be
given those who arrest and denounce such criminals, but if officers and men of the fords
and passes and the officers and men in charge of the frontiers know but do not denounce
or accuse such criminals, they are to share the same crime.
Document Analysis
1. What problem was the Chancellor of State attempting to solve with this court opinion?
2. How were the officials mentioned in this ruling ordered to keep track of horses
entering and exiting the passes outside the central government?
3. What does this document tell you about how Han rulers governed?
12
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 2
Source C
Source: Edict of Monthly Ordinances for the Four Seasons, in Fifty Articles
from excavated wall inscription, 5 CE
The Grand Empress Dowager proclaims: Recently Yin and
Yang have not been in harmony. Wind and rain have not
come at the proper times, and the lazy farmers have been
at ease, not striving at their work. Because of this, we
have repeatedly suffered disaster. I worry sadly about
this. I think of the sagacious [wise] emperors and
perspicacious [perceptive] kings, who all personally
followed heaven’s order and sincerely held to its core.
They reverently accorded with Yin and Yang, assiduously
[diligently] ordered the people’s time, and encouraged
agriculture in order to make the harvest plentiful—
because they gave importance to the fate of the common
people. So I have created the office of calendar maker and
established the four masters . . . .
The articles of the edict [command]:
In the fifth year of the Yuanshi period, . . . the master of
autumn Pu had this distributed to his subordinate
commandery grand administrators. When you receive
this document, carry out its task and distribute it to those
who should use it, as specified in the document of the
edict. When this document arrives, report.
Gansu Province Archeological Institute, et.al.,
Monthly Ordinances from Xuanquan and
unhuang (Beijing: China publishing House
2001).
Assiduously order the people’s time, saying: Sow grain,
and everyone hurry to the fields.
It is forbidden to cut down trees. This means that neither large nor small trees may be cut
down, and it applies until the end of the eighth month. Only after the leaves have fallen
from plants and trees may one cut down those trees that should be.
Do not kill young insects. This refers to immature insects that do not harm people. It
applies until the end of the ninth month . . . .
13
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 2
Document Analysis Use the preamble and three edicts to answer the questions.
1. What activities did this edict regulate?
2. What was the purpose of this edict (command) from the Empress?
3. What does this document tell you about how Han rulers governed?
14
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 2
Source D
Source: The Letters of Pliny, Book X (public bath at Prusa), c. 1st century, CE
XXIII
Pliny to the Emperor Trajan
The public bath at Prusa, Sir, is old and dilapidated, and the people are very anxious
for it to be rebuilt. My own opinion is that you could suitably grant their petition [request].
There will be money available for building it, first from the sums I have begun to call in
from private individuals, and secondly because the people are prepared to apply to
building [to use for building] the bath the grants they usually make towards financing the
distribution of olive oil. This is, moreover, a scheme [plan] which is worthy of the town’s
prestige and the splendor of your reign.
XXIV
Trajan to Pliny
If building a new bath at Prusa will not strain the city’s finances, there is no reason
why we should not grant their petition; provided that no new tax is imposed and there is
no further diversion of funds of theirs intended for essential services.
Document Analysis
1. Why is Pliny writing to Emperor Trajan?
2. What was the Emperor’s response?
3. What does this document tell you about how Roman rulers governed?
Citation: Radice, Betty, trans., The Letter of Pliny, (Boston:Harvard University Press, 1969), 196-197.
15
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 2
Source E
Source: The Letters of Pliny, Book X (sentencing of slave recruits), c. 1st century, CE
XXIX
Pliny to the Emperor Trajan
Sempronius Caelianus, who is an excellent young man, has discovered two slaves
among his recruits and has sent them to me.2 I have postponed judgment on them until I
could ask your advice on what would be a suitable sentence, knowing that you are the
founder and upholder of military discipline. My chief reason for hesitating is the fact that
the men had already taken the oath of allegiance but had not yet been enrolled in a unit. I
therefore pray you, Sir, to tell me what course to follow, especially as the decision is likely
to provide a precedent.
XXX
Trajan to Pliny
Sempronius Caelianus was carrying out my instructions in sending you the slaves.
Whether they deserve capital punishment will need investigation; it is important to know
if they were volunteers or conscripts, or possibly offered as substitutes. If they are
conscripts, then the blame falls on the recruiting officer; if substitutes, then those who
offered them as such are guilty; but if they volunteered for service, well aware of their
status, they will have to be executed. The fact that they were not yet enrolled in a legion
makes little difference, for the truth about their origin should have come out on the actual
day they were accepted for the army.
Document Analysis
1. What advice was Pliny seeking from Emperor Trajan? Why?
2. What was the Emperor’s response?
3. What does this document tell you about how Roman rulers governed?
Citation: Radice, Betty, trans., The Letter of Pliny, (Boston:Harvard University Press, 1969), 200-203.
2
No slave could serve in the army in any capacity; the offence was one of seeking citizenship by illegal means and [was]
punishable by death.
16
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 2
Source F
Number of Salaried Officials in the Roman and Han Empires
140,000
130,000
# of Salaried Officials
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
10,000
0
ROMAN EMPIRE
HAN EMPIRE
Document Analysis
1. Approximately how many officials did the Roman Empire employ?
2. Approximately how many officials did the Han Empire employ?
3. What does this chart, along with Documents C, D, and E tell you about how the Han
governed?
4. What does this chart, along with Documents F and G, tell you about how the Romans
governed?
Citation: Graph from Carlos Noreña, UC Berkeley Associate Professor "Government and Law in the
Roman Empire," Lecture (11/6/2014).
17
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
PART 2
Analyzing Sources to Compare the Han and Roman Empires
Focus Question: How did the Roman and Han rulers administer (govern) the provinces of their vast empires?
Directions:
1) Select four sources (A, B, C, D, E, F) that will help you answer the focus question. Make sure to include at least one Han and one Roman
source.
2) Complete the chart below to analyze and compare the messages of the primary source documents.
3) Use your analysis to answer the Focus Question.
Source Title
Empire
Why did you choose this
source?
Message
1
2
3
4
18
Specific evidence to answer
the focus question.
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
FINAL ASSESSMENT – Writing Frame
Focus Question: What do these diverse sources tell us about the differences between how these vast
empires ruled their territories?
Thesis: (How are the Roman and Han provincial governments similar?)
_______________
Supporting Evidence #1:
(Cite specific evidence from a Roman primary source.)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Analysis of Evidence #1:
Supporting Evidence #2:
(Cite specific evidence from a Han primary source.)
Analysis of Evidence #2:
Supporting Evidence #3:
(Cite specific evidence as to how the two empires differ.)
Analysis of Evidence #3:
Concluding Sentence:
_
19
Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
Background Information
The Legacy of Qin
Could Qin rule all China from his palace? Even with governors and defenders, he needed more help.
Qin set up a new system that would be used in China for centuries to come.
Qin’s New System
Before Qin, officials passed their jobs on to their sons. Qin changed all that. He set up a bureaucracy
(byoo RAHK ruh see), a system in which each worker is appointed to a job and is trained for that job. Each
worker gets a salary, follows strict rules, and answers to a superior. People at each level supervise those
below them.
Heading the bureaucracy was the emperor Qin Shihuangdi. Eleven chamberlains managed the
emperor’s household. Three high officials, sometimes called the “Three Dukes,” held the highest
government and military posts. Find
their titles below. The chart shows only
the top levels of the Qin bureaucracy.
Beneath all the officials on the chart
labored a host of minor officials.
New Standards
Qin made other changes to help
unify his empire. People in different
parts of China had developed their own
systems of measurement and money.
Over time, different regions had even
come to use different characters for
writing.
Qin set new standards for all of
China. All measurements had to be the
same, and only one kind of money was
legal. Qin also decreed standard written
characters. Now people all over china
could communicate in writing. To this day, Chinese writing remains much the same as in Qin’s time.
Land Ownership
Qin also changed the rules about ownership of land. He feared the nobles as a threat to his power, so
took land away from thousands of noble families. Thus Qin ended the Chinese feudal system. Now any
man, rich or poor, could own land, as long he paid the land tax. And now Qin’s government, not the lords,
controlled the peasants.
The Great Wall
Some of the scholars punished under Lisi were sent to work on the emperor’s huge building project.
That project would later be known as the Great Wall of China.
The Great Wall still stands. It snakes through the mountains of northern China for more than 1,500
miles. The Wall was built for two reasons. First, it was meant to keep in peasants who might otherwise
leave their farms to become nomads. Second, it was built to keep out enemy invaders. Guards on its
watchtowers kept a lookout for enemy forces. They signaled invasions with flags or fires, holding off the
enemy until help came.
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Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
Background Information
To complete this massive structure, Qin used a forced-labor crew of 300,000 men. These workers
connected several existing walls to form one single, massive wall. The Great Wall is nearly 30 feet high. At
most points, it is wide enough to allow five horses to run atop it side by side. If it were in United States,
the Great Wall would stretch from Washington, D.C, to Denver, Colorado.
The Wall was not a complete success. First, it never really kept out invaders. They swarmed over and
around it. Second, thousands of workers died on the long journey to the Wall. Thousands more died while
building it. The folktale “Meng-Jiang Nyu,” on pages 256 to 261, shows how some lives were changed by
the Great Wall.
A Unified Empire
In a sense, Qin, a brilliant and sometimes cruel emperor, gained the immortality he wanted. In his
lifetime, he unified states that had been fighting for centuries. And even today outsiders call the land
“China” from Qin (or Ch’in), the name of its first emperor.
A Message of Ancient Days, Houghton Mifflin Social Studies, 1991, pages 278-280.
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Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
Background Information
The Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty Government
When the Qin dynasty collapsed in 207 BC, several different groups battled for power. After several
years of fighting, an army led by Liu Bang (lee-oo bang) won control. Liu Bang became the first emperor
of the Han dynasty. This Chinese dynasty lasted for more than 400 years.
The Rise of a New Dynasty
Liu Bang, a peasant, was able to be become emperor in large part because of the Chinese belief in the
mandate of heaven. He was the first common person to become emperor. He earned people’s loyalty and
trust. In addition, he was well liked by both soldiers and peasants, which helped him to maintain control.
Liu Bang’s rule was different from the strict Legalism of the Qin. He wanted to free people from harsh
government policies. He lowered taxes for farmers and made punishments less severe. He gave large
blocks of land to his supporters.
In addition to setting new policies, Liu Bang changed the way government worked. He set up a
government structure that built on the foundation begun by the Qin. He also relied on educated officials
to help him rule.
Wudi Creates a New Government
In 140 BC Emperor Wudi (WOO-dee) took the throne. He wanted to create a stronger central
government. To do that, he took land from the lords, raised taxes, and placed the supply of grain under
the control of the government.
Under Wudi, Confucianism became China’s official government philosophy. Government officials were
expected to practice Confucianism. Wudi even began a university to teach Confucian ideas.
If a person passed an exam on Confucian teachings, he could get a good position in the government.
However, not just anyone could take the test. The exams were only open to people who had been
recommended for government service already. As a result, wealthy or influential families continued to
control the government.
Ancient Civilizations, Holt (2006), page 200-201.
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Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
Background Information
After the Battle of Actium, Octavian became the sole ruler of the Republic. He planned to restore Rome to
its old glory and establish peace and stability after a century of war. In order to accomplish his goal,
however, he had to form a new type of government that resembled the old Republic constitution but did
not include its weaknesses. Learning from his predecessors’ mistakes, he did not make himself a dictator.
Instead, for his first years in power, he concealed his power behind republican traditions. In 27 BCE he
pronounced “the transfer of the state to the free disposal of the Senate and the people.” This action
earned him the reputation of being the restorer of the Republic, whereupon the Senate bestowed on him
the title of AUGUSTUS (which means “the revered one”) to define his new status as leader of the Roman
state. He was known as Augustus thereafter. Augustus became the first emperor of the Roman Empire,
which lasted from 27 BCE to 476 CE.
Even though Augustus retained many of the republican offices, such as the consulship and the Senate, he
was the supreme ruler of the state. He embodied the roles of the president of the Senate, leader of the
Roman army, and chief priest. He was granted power over the senatorial governors in the provinces and
power as the tribune of the people. The courts, legislation, finance, and internal and foreign policy were
all in his hands.
Augustus accomplished other deeds as well. He created a permanent bodyguard and a city police, which
were stationed in Rome. He instituted a fire brigade. He founded a new military treasury from which he
could pay his soldiers. He also embellished Rome with a number of public buildings, both restoring old
ones and erecting new ones. This greatly pleased the people of Rome.
Augustus showed himself to be a great general and administrator in the reorganization of the
government and the provinces. He transformed the shattered Republic into a new regime that was to last
for many centuries. He solved the problem of governing by making the Roman state a one-man rule,
accomplished in the appearance of the old republican traditions. He created a durable Roman peace,
called the Pax Romana, that lasted for two centuries, until 180 CE. During this period there was no major
war and the economy prospered. An extensive network of roads extending throughout the empire
increased the flow of trade. Trade flourished in exports such as wool, olive oil, wine, metal work, and
pottery. In return, Italy received goods from the provinces, including slaves, grain, marble, and ivory.
Production from agricultural goods, rather than trade, however, provided the major part of Rome’s total
revenue.
Dierckx, Heidi M.C., Excerpt from “Octavian-Augustus: The First Roman Emperor,” Greek and Roman
Civilizations, (Mark Twain Media, Inc., 1996).
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Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
Background Information
Maps Showing Extent of Han and Roman Empires
A Message of Ancient Days, Houghton Mifflin Social Studies, 1991, page 282.
A Message of Ancient Days, Houghton Mifflin Social Studies, 1991, page 433.
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Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
Background Information
Map of the Commanderies and Protectorates of the Han Empire, 87 BC
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty
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Governing Empires: Roman & Han Empires
Background Information
Map of the Provinces and Client States of the Roman Empire, AD 125
Andrei Nacu – Wikimedia Commons user: Andrein, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_province
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