3013VTA – Expertise and Development
Assignment 1 – Cognitive Theory
Assignment 1– Cognitive Theory
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3013VTA – Expertise and Development
Convener: Julie Massie
Submitted by: David Martin
Student #2636349
david.martin3@student.griffith.edu.au
Date Submitted: 31 August 2007
David Martin
Student #2636349
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
Assignment 1 – Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theory can be used to explain what is involved in the learning process. This
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assignment will show how cognitive theory can be applied in relation to knowledge acquisition in
the area of typing a previously handwritten letter into a word processor. The basic learning
process will be described using both information processing and connectionist models. The
kinds of knowledge required will be identified, knowledge transfer theories and schemes will be
analysed. The use of assimilation and accommodation will be shown as part of the cognitive
learning process. Metacognition and differing levels of knowledge will be shown to be involved
in the task and will be examined. Memory functions and learning styles will be analysed and it
will be shown that while cognitive theories are particularly suited to the acquisition of the leaning
in the area of typing a previously handwritten letter into a word processor other approaches of
learning; behaviourism and social learning theories will be used to offer other explanations of
the learning environment.
A summary of learning acquisition in this area, using an information processing approach, can
be represented as: input being accepted by the sensory store, and then, providing sufficient
attention is being paid to the input and the executive control processes allow, information will be
passed into the working memory. Retrieval of previous experience and related knowledge would
coincide with storage of new information, processes and memories; also regulated by the
executive control processes. This process is the multistore model of information processing
(Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 160) integrated with metacognition (Krause, Bochner,
& Duchesne, 2003, p. 168). However, as the complexity of domain transfer and types of
knowledge is examined, a straightforward information processing model becomes limited in its
ability to explain the entirety of the process. Further, it is theorised that novices store the
processed information in isolation, whereas experts integrate previously held knowledge and
develop advanced connections. (Bush, 2006, p. 15). Therefore a connectionist model of
cognitive learning, where information would be stored and connected in multiple parts of the
David Martin
Student #2636349
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
Assignment 1 – Cognitive Theory
brain (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 163) is more useful to explain the cognitive
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learning process.
While cognitive theory generally separates knowledge as knowledge-that and knowledge-how,
schemes can be used to bring these two types of knowledge together (Stevenson, 2003, p. 17).
A scheme is a cluster of related mental images (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 60). .
Specific word processing and letter writing skills would be a sub-scheme of the computer use
scheme. Some schemes can also be considered as low level, for routine tasks, or as part of a
higher level, involving task identification as well as setting and monitoring goals (Yashin-Shaw,
2003, p. 159). Learning in the computer use scheme involves both the knowledge-how and
knowledge-that domains (Pittman, 2002, p. 376). Knowledge about what the mouse, keyboard
and screen does, and what buttons to use is part of the students’ declarative (that) knowledge.
However knowing how to operate the mouse, which parts of the screen to click on next to make
the computer continue the task requires procedural (how) knowledge. Therefore the types of
knowledge and schemes involved in this learning process crosses over into both of these
categories.
Transfer is the process of applying prior knowledge or experience to a new situation (Alexander
& Murphy, 1999, p. 562). Using a mouse, typing on the keyboard and using on-screen menus
are skills restricted to computer and technology use, creating bracketed information, which is
initially difficult to transfer to new situations. Therefore many technological literacy skills are
domain specific knowledge; they have very limited transfer to other domains. However, tasks
within the computer use scheme or domain are very transferrable. For example menu and
keyboard shortcuts are similar on many software packages, learn them in one and the
knowledge can be applied to other software. Further, both the declarative and procedural
knowledge can be used in other software packages. This is an example of near transfer, where
David Martin
Student #2636349
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
Assignment 1 – Cognitive Theory
two sets of stimulus are similar between events (Stevenson, Vocational expertise, 1994, p. 10).
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Generalised and technological literacy skills are also transferred into the computer use domain,
with recognition of menu structures, dialogs/questions prompted by the software needing to be
comprehended and then applied to the computer use domain. Multiple schemes are used in
acquiring knowledge in this case, and cognitive transfer will play an important role in creating
new schemes and modifying existing ones.
Cognitive development theories also explain how schemes are modified. When experiences or
ideas are inconsistent compared with what is already known disequilibrium occurs (Krause,
Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 60). Assimilation is the interpretation of new knowledge, without
the need for creating new schemes, but adjusting existing cognitive structures (Krause,
Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 60). Assimilation would occur if the student already has some
knowledge of word processing, and new procedural knowledge (such as advanced formatting)
can be learnt. Using zones of proximal development would be an effective way of assisting the
learning process within the computing environment, the software’s self-help mechanisms aid
scaffolding, though teacher monitoring is still required (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p.
377). Accommodation is “where new information is used to establish a new model or scheme”
(Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 61). Accommodation would occur if the student had
not used a word processor before; a new scheme would need to be created. The process of
disequilibrium can explain how existing computer knowledge, letter writing and literacy skills can
be used in conjunction with new knowledge to learn how to type a pre-written letter into a word
processor; accommodation, adaption and assimilation will occur when learning in this area.
Cognitive learning theories allow that there are many methods of learning and that learning can
be done at different levels. Initially, directed learning would be used to introduce basic
procedural skills, such as basic mouse and keyboard usage. This type of knowledge would be
David Martin
Student #2636349
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
Assignment 1 – Cognitive Theory
considered low level cognitive knowledge (Schraw, 1998, p. 95) However, as the learner gains
experience in the computing environment, there are strategies (such as Microsoft Word’s inprogram help) that allow autonomous learning and can be viewed as meta-cognitive skills in the
computer user domain. This is an example of higher level knowledge, where knowledge is less
bracketed and includes meta-cognitive knowledge (Schraw, 1998, p. 96). Further, these selfhelp techniques can be defined as a higher order procedures, in that they leave the student with
“knowing a general way of proceeding in solving new problems” (Stevenson, Vocational
expertise, 1994, p. 13). This task can be learned in a number of ways. For example the exact
step by step method of creating the word processed letter can be demonstrated. Alternatively,
learners may be taught a number of techniques that can be applied to the task. In the second
case, higher order procedures have been engaged to break the task into components, then
selecting the correct techniques to complete the task (Stevenson, Vocational expertise, 1994, p.
14). Further, using methods to increase cognitive skills, will also improve meta-cognitive abilities
(Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 172). Metacognitive skills are also referred to as
strategic knowledge (Yashin-Shaw, 2003, p. 173) or conditional knowledge. Metacognition
regulates what knowledge to use when and forms the executive control processes (Krause,
Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 168). These abilities are ones that students should be given by
direct or modelled instruction along with guided practice. Examples of how documents are
analysed (audience, styles, purposes) would be given, along with demonstrations of how to use
the computer software for self-help. Further, strategies such as guiding the development of
check lists that help the student monitor their own progress are ways of enhancing metacognitive skills (Bush, 2006, p. 17). In practical classroom situations students need to be taught
these strategies separately and repeatedly to enforce the idea that help is at hand without
teacher intervention. . Independent practice is then allowed, with feedback being provided
David Martin
Student #2636349
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3013VTA – Expertise and Development
Assignment 1 – Cognitive Theory
regularly (Schraw, 1998, p. 98). Learning in the computer use area can be done progressively,
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and can aid in a way that promotes high level and meta-cognitive learning.
The storage and recall of all of the abovementioned skills and knowledge is also important.
Cognitive theories use sensory, short term and long term memory to explain how knowledge is
stored and retrieved. Sensory memory is the learning in-box. Focusing or paying attention is
needed for sensory information to be held in short term memory and then to be passed on to
long term memory. Long term memory can then be further classified as episodic memory, which
keeps track of personal experiences in sets of timelines, semantic memory contains general
knowledge that is not related to a time or place and procedural memory is for actions and skills
(Reed, 2004, p. 118). Therefore to obtain the best result with students all types of long term
memory should try to be accessed. By using a combination of group activities, general
information and hands on experience learning can be connected to the different memory types.
How we forget, and therefore remember is an important part of the cognitive representation of
learning.
When learning to use a word processer several techniques of problem solving can be taught to
students, and can be used when a problem occurs. Deductive reasoning uses known rules and
principles to try and find a solution to a problem (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 56).
This type reasoning is part of Piaget’s fourth stage of development and can be used
successfully in the word processing domain by applying past experiences and knowledge of
computer use to navigation menu structures and accessing tips and help. By hypothesising the
results of possible commands or procedures and testing the results students can find ways
around problems encountered. Inductive reasoning can also be used in the computer use
domain. Inductive reasoning is the ability to create new rules based on general principles or
previously known rules (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 56). Again, the logical nature of
David Martin
Student #2636349
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
Assignment 1 – Cognitive Theory
computer software lends itself to this type of reasoning, commands and buttons are common
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between many different software packages.
Cognitive styles can also be used to consider how to model information and how it is presented
to learners. Considering field dependent learners would mean using rehearsal strategies, such
as repeating sets of commands, or doing multiple practice letters; whereas field independent
learners would be more inclined to use elaboration strategies, such as an explanation to the
why behind computer menu structure (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 176). Student
response times have been identified as impulsivity and reflectivity, describing what is described
as conceptual tempo (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p. 177). Impulsivity is generally
though to reduce learning effectiveness, with reflective learning being more effective and
achieving better results (Spinella & Miley, 2003, p. 545). Deep and surface learning styles also
affect student approaches and achievements. Deep learners are “intrinsically motivated to
study, and are interested in satisfying their curiosity” (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003, p.
178), have higher self-concepts about their own learning, and tend to use more problem solving
techniques than surface learners. When teaching in this area, the different styles of learning
can be taken into account and reflected upon to create a positive learning environment.
Alternative approaches to learning need to be integrated within the classroom. Cognitive theory
alone is not capable of explaining the transmission of all knowledge, and should be used in
conjunction with other methods of learning. In the case of socio-cultural or instructional
psychology, methods of group work could be used bring context and further meaning to the
topic. Social learning theories combined with cognitive theory as social constructivism shows
these social processes to be essential to the learning processes (Krause, Bochner, &
Duchesne, 2003, p. 183).Brain storming different layouts available for formal letter writing,
involved with tasks interpreting the written text and choosing how to display it on the word
David Martin
Student #2636349
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
Assignment 1 – Cognitive Theory
processed document, and how each layout is used in different social and work contexts are
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examples of how constructivism can be used in this learning task. Constructivism is centred on
the students “active construction of meaning through interaction with the social and physical
environment” (Bush, 2006, p. 16).
Using a behaviourism style of teaching would include stimulus response methods of teaching
and observing students, breaking information into small pieces, presenting it, and offering praise
to reinforce correct behaviours (Scheurman, 1998, p. 6). Rehearsal and reinforcement of tasks
and procedures is a further use of behavioural methods of learning. Students would type several
practice letters during the learning process. Further use of this theory would be to use
behavioural objectives to assess students for “pre-specified performances” (Stevenson, 2003, p.
29). Thorndike’s trial-and-error learning is a commonly seen method of self-learning in the
computer field. Correct guesses about menu and toolbar options can lead to successful
computer use, generating successful outcomes and the reward of not being annoyed with the
computer, strengthening the response-stimulus relationships (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne,
2003, p. 132). Therefore behaviourism can be applied to much of the procedural knowledge
associated with the computer use domain, but cannot explain the meta-cognitive and underlying
declarative knowledge involved.
While humanism learning processes are valid they have little influence on the specific area of
learning covered here. Maslow’s ideas of human needs and self-actualisation can be
considered to have generalised influence within the classroom (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne,
2003, p. 204). Further, Maslow sees cognitive abilities as tools to help achieve self-actualisation
(Maslow, 1943, p. 384). Both individualised and cooperative learning methods can be
implemented in the classroom. Using self-paced tutorials supports individualised instruction,
David Martin
Student #2636349
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
Assignment 1 – Cognitive Theory
while group activities can provide motivational rather than cognitive learning (Krause, Bochner,
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& Duchesne, 2003, p. 216).
Cognitive learning theory has developed in response to behaviourisms inability to describe our
internal intelligence processes. Using a blend of learning theories available in teaching, and
thinking about teaching helps explain why and how knowledge is learnt and how to promote
self-learning. It is an effective theory in explaining processes that cannot be strictly seen or
observed during the learning process, and while it has limitations and criticisms, cognitive
learning theory is useful in analysing and improving teaching and learning methods.
David Martin
Student #2636349
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
Assignment 1 – Cognitive Theory
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References
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David Martin
Student #2636349
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
Assignment 1 – Cognitive Theory
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David Martin
Student #2636349