Assignment 2–Cognitive Learning and
Instructional Approaches
Course 3013VTA and Expertise and Development
Course Convenor: Julie Massie
Submitted by: David Martin
Student #2636349
David.Martin3@student.griffith.edu.au
Date Submitted:
Assignment 2 – Cognitive Learning and Instructional Approaches
This assignment will analyse computer based instruction by using cognitive theories to
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demonstrate what types of knowledge are developed and how phases of learning can
demonstrate that this knowledge is added to over time; eventually developing expertise.
Further, transfer and scaffolding theories will analyse the development of expertise and
how metacognitive theories can be applied to computer based instruction. It will be
argued that computer based instruction is useful but cannot be used as a total
replacement of teacher interaction. For the purpose of this assignment, computer based
instruction will refer to software and/or hardware that primarily provides simulation, onscreen instructions and limited interaction between students and/or teachers.
Instructional methods can be described as a teaching strategy, something that contains
a group of mental tactics that are used to gain knowledge or a skill. Computer based
instruction uses several tactics based around drill and practice, simulations, games,
multimedia and collaboration.
Knowledge that is taught in a classroom tends to be declarative (Leinhardt, McCarthy
Young, & Merrimam, 1995, p. 403) and involves labelling and codifying information.
Computer based instruction can be efficient in presenting declarative knowledge to
students in a number of ways. Firstly, the varied cognitive learning styles of students
can be more easily accommodated with computer based instruction by using multimedia
and self-regulated learning. In a typical classroom situation the teacher is involved with
a group of students, rather than individuals, and must use a particular strategy that may
not be suitable for all involved. Further, conceptual tempo problems can be eliminated
as most computer based instruction is self-paced. Declarative knowledge still needs to
be applied, especially in vocational education, where knowledge of procedures and how
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
David Martin
Student #2636349
Assignment 2 – Cognitive Learning and Instructional Approaches
to do something is important. A student with procedural knowledge will be able to
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perform routine tasks and specific procedures (Stevenson, 1994, p. 11). Computer
based instruction is able to develop procedural knowledge using rote learning,
presenting procedures step-by-step, as many times as necessary for a student to
remember the procedure. However, this method of instruction does not help students
develop an understanding of when to use procedures and why the procedure works
(Gott cited in Stevenson, 1994, p. 11) and therefore doesn’t provide skills for nonroutine tasks (Stevenson, 2003, p. 132).
Phases of learning can be used to help create a hierarchical idea of how knowledge is
added to over time. More than one idea of phases has been researched and Dreyfus
and Dreyfus have suggested five stages of learning (Dreyfus and Dreyfus cited in
Shuell, 1990). The first stage is a novice, a beginner who has to learn commonplace
terms and elements and general guiding rules, whereas an advanced beginner realises
that the generalised rules do not fit all situations and experience starts to become
important. Computer based instruction is useful in these phases of development,
information can be presented in a variety of methods When a learner is able to prioritise
what rules are important and that the context determines the importance of which rules
to use, the competent phases has then been reached. Being able to identify similarities
between events and doing more analysis and decision making is associated with the
proficient phase. More advanced computer based instruction such as simulations would
be needed to develop these phases. An expert has a high level of understanding
between linkages that occur between different areas of knowledge, have fluid
performance and an intuitive grasp of situations (Cornford, 1999, p. 274). For this
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
David Martin
Student #2636349
Assignment 2 – Cognitive Learning and Instructional Approaches
phase of development a computer may be able to assess expert knowledge using
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complex case scenarios, simulations and a broad range of questions.
Shuell’s three phases can also be used to describe the development of knowledge in
computer based instruction. In the initial phase of learning, a large amount of facts are
presented with the learner seeing no underlying structure. Existing knowledge schemes
would be used to try and associate meaning with the information. During this stage
learners will memorise facts and use existing schemes to interpret information (Shuell,
1990, p. 541). If assimilation cannot occur, then information remains isolated and
general problem solving techniques or techniques that have been used in other learning
areas will be used, but will not be able to form complex procedural of propositional
structures (Shuell, 1990, p. 542). Computer based training allows for presentation of
large amounts of facts and can be used successfully in the first phase of knowledge
development.
The intermediate phase of learning occurs as the student begins to see relationships
between the information being presented. New structures and schemes are created that
allow concepts to be related, and deeper learning is performed as the student
contextualises the material being taught (Shuell, 1990, p. 542) into more meaningful
schemes. Further, meaningful knowledge can be taught by “demonstrating links
between concepts and procedures” (Karpov & C, 1998, p. 29) and computer based
problem solving activities and simulations can be used so that students could have
practice at applying knowledge and links with new topics (Shuell, 1990, p. 541), helping
to develop assimilation, accommodations and meaning.
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
David Martin
Student #2636349
Assignment 2 – Cognitive Learning and Instructional Approaches
The terminal phase of learning involves actions becoming automatic, being performed
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without conscious effort, instead relying on domain specific knowledge that has been
previously developed (Shuell, 1990, p. 543). During this phase tacit knowledge will be
acquired as expertise is attained. Tacit knowledge, “referred to as knowledge in action”
(Stevenson, 2003, p. 149), is difficult to convey using computer based training because
codification is required for information to be stored effectively on the computer. Further,
it is situational; such tacit knowledge is something that is felt as being right, rather than
being perfectly described; “not everything can be made explicit in language”
(Stevenson, 2003, p. 7).
The development of expertise is also connected with general problem solving ability,
knowledge of underlying principles, innovation and evaluation techniques (Stevenson,
1994, p. 9) and heuristic strategies and problem solving are two methods of experts
acquiring tacit knowledge. This type of knowledge is generally unsuitable to computer
based instruction unless it is using complex and realistic simulations. Further, most
computer based instruction is based more on behaviourism than cognitive learning
theories (Johansson & Gardenfors, 2005, p. 4) and the majority of computer based
instruction is heavily teacher-centred and uses repetition and drilling techniques, though
intelligent tutorials, simulation and games are becoming more popular.
In many fields the when and why of procedures are learnt over time by practical
application of declarative and procedural knowledge and technical expertise also
includes the ability to transfer existing expert performance into new circumstances
(Stevenson, 2003, p. 11). Specific or near transfer occurs when there is a clear
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
David Martin
Student #2636349
Assignment 2 – Cognitive Learning and Instructional Approaches
similarity between the original learning and the new transfer task and this type of
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transfer is generally done by novices and transfer can occur with simple computer
based instruction. Developing transfer ability is best done with scenario based
instructions (Stevenson, 2003, p. 257), which can be done with computer based training
using simulations and case studies. Scaffolding is a teaching technique that involves
near transfer. Computer based instruction can facilitate scaffolding by identifying the
students zone of proximal development by first testing existing knowledge (Krause,
Bochner, & Duchesne, 2006, p. 377). Experts are more likely to use non-specific or far
transfer, that occurs when there are little or no similarities (Stevenson, 1994, pp. 9-10).
Further, the expert is able to use higher order procedures and problem solving methods
to adapt their wider range of knowledge to new situations. Computer based instruction
traditionally lacks the ability to engage the learner in far transfer, but must strive to do
so, with the inclusion of interactivity, multiple simulation outcomes and inductive
coaching (Ruohonen, 2005, p. 201) and needs to be designed with the zone of proximal
development theory in mind, allowing more chance of transfer occurring.
Metacognitive skills can also be developed using computer based instruction, especially
when it involves collaborative efforts or communication between students and teachers.
The instruction should be organised as a shared activity, with control being shared
between students and teachers (Karpov & C, 1998, p. 29). Software tools that allow
monitoring and self-check opportunities are examples of meta-cognitive skills to be used
and developed. Further, specific meta-cognitive sub-skills have been demonstrated as
having to “be performed with great speed and automaticity” therefore the repetition and
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
David Martin
Student #2636349
Assignment 2 – Cognitive Learning and Instructional Approaches
drilling techniques found in computer based instruction can be useful (Derry & Murphy,
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1986, p. 6).
Interactivity is something that is taken for granted in a normal classroom but is very
difficult to replicate in computer software as most communication on computers
between students is asynchronous; it is not real time, making many reluctant to use it.
However, a major advantage of computer based instruction is that feedback can be
tracked constantly and can be instantly updated, whereas in a regular classroom,
feedback is entirely dependant on the teacher (Jones, 2002, p. 50). Feedback is useful
in motivating students using extrinsic motivation; computer based instruction generally
uses task-contingent extrinsic rewards. Different forms of feedback can be used.
Critical feedback is almost a simple right or wrong response, whereas cognitive
feedback explains what is required for a better result (Kehoe & Macrae, 1999).
Computer instruction that just gives a right/wrong response is an example of critical
feedback. Children, and even a large range of adults have experience with xbox and
playstations; game based computer instruction offers a familiar environment already
associated with high interest level and motivation (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2006,
p. 375). However, while intrinsic motivation can be undermined by overuse of taskcontingent rewards (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001, pp. 4,11) research indicates that
correctly used positive feedback tends to have a positive effect on intrinsic motivation
(Derry & Murphy, 1986, p. 9). Further, tasks that give the learner active control are more
likely to activate intrinsic motivation (Ainley, 1999, p. 167). Therefore computer based
instruction that uses these types of rewards need to be bolstered with other reward and
motivational systems along with intended and real interactivity.
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
David Martin
Student #2636349
Assignment 2 – Cognitive Learning and Instructional Approaches
Constructivist ideas of development, where students are active participants and learning
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can be self-regulated can be applied to computer based instruction as activities that
allow the manipulation of virtual materials and ideas can be used (Krause, Bochner, &
Duchesne, 2006, p. 184). Further, using computer based instruction allows information
to be presented in either a linear or branched method. Using a branched method of
information presentation, the student is more likely to follow links or leads that have the
most chance of assimilating new knowledge with their own existing schemes and is an
example of student-centred learning. While cognitive theory offers what appears to be a
complete view of learning, emotional, affective and social considerations also need to
be taken (Shuell, 1990, p. 544). Computer based instruction is generally unable to
accommodate these predispositions. A further limitation of computer based training is
highlighted by Piaget’s theory of knowledge acquisition done through interaction, which
is social in nature and requires “an exchange of thoughts, feeling and strategies”
(Jones, 2002, p. 50) between the teacher and student. While computer based
instruction is becoming more complex, it would be unlikely to find any real social
interaction without off line contact with other students or a teacher. Further, there is a
gap between what can easily be taught using computer based instruction and what is
taught in an interactive classroom environment; computer based instructional methods
are unable to provide active teaching (explain active teaching) or to answer complex
questions (Sharples, Jeffery, du Boulay, Teather, Teather, & and du Boulay, 2000, p.
264). Therefore the more practical or complex the task the less successful computer
based instruction is likely to be. Further, “knowledge acquired in practice tends to be
procedural” (Leinhardt, McCarthy Young, & Merrimam, 1995, p. 403) and while
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
David Martin
Student #2636349
Assignment 2 – Cognitive Learning and Instructional Approaches
computer based instruction that is designed to deliver procedural knowledge uses step-
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by-step instruction and using multi-modal methods, such as text and video/pictures;
practical skills are often better transmitted non-linguistically (Bloch, 1998 cited in
Stevenson, 2003 p. 13); even when using video and audio there can be problems with
linguistics and the re-contextualisation of physical activities. Further, to create computer
based instruction several transformations of information needs to take place; from the
practical task, into written language, and then computer code that can be used to
re-transform the information. Teacher mediation of content is a key factor in the success
of any instruction method, whether in a class room or in a remote access situation and
this is what will ultimately determine what and how development occurs.
Computer based instruction is one of many useful tools in education that when designed
and implemented correctly, can enhance the learners experiences. Cognitive theories
show that declarative and procedural knowledge can be taught using computers, and
can be used to help the development expertise through phases of learning. There are
benefits and limitations involved in the reliance of this instructional style that teachers
should take into account. There are many facets of learning and one type of instruction
cannot be applied to all situations.
3013VTA – Expertise and Development
David Martin
Student #2636349
Assignment 2 – Cognitive Learning and Instructional Approaches
References
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Ainley, M. (1999). Interest and learning: from attraction to absorbing interest. In J. A.
Athanasou (Ed.), Adult Educational Psychology (pp. 159-182). Katoomba: Social
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Cornford, I. R. (1999). Skill Learning and the Development of Expertise. In J. A.
Athanasou (Ed.), Adult Educational Psychology (pp. 263-320). Katoomba: Social
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Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic
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3013VTA – Expertise and Development
David Martin
Student #2636349
Assignment 2 – Cognitive Learning and Instructional Approaches
Kehoe, E. J., & Macrae, M. (1999). Modern Associative Theory in Teaching and
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Learning. In J. A. Athanasou (Ed.), Adult Educational Psychology (pp. 211-246).
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3013VTA – Expertise and Development
David Martin
Student #2636349
Assignment 2 – Cognitive Learning and Instructional Approaches
Stevenson, J. C. (1994). Cognition at work: the development of vocational expertise. In
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Cognition at work: the development of vocational expertise (pp. 7-35). Adelaide:
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3013VTA – Expertise and Development
David Martin
Student #2636349