Chemistry behind molecular breakdown, complex molecular structures, thermo chemical changes & breakdown, plasma physics, catalyzing affects of heat, and thermo-dynamics.
Atoms are made up of protons, electrons, and neutrons. They have a nucleus of neutrons and positively charged electrons and then outer shells of mobile, negatively charged electrons. The atomic bonds that hold the structure of atoms together are extremely strong. Indeed, only fission can break them apart (nuclear explosion, etc.). The electrons in the outer shell are called valence electrons (think of these as the outer layer of an onion). Valence electrons are less tightly bound to the atom and can be shared with other atoms or even ripped off completely (this process is called ionization).
Molecules are groups of atoms that can be held together by a variety of different forces:

Covalent Bonds: Covalent bonds form when two or more atoms share valence electrons equally; the repulsive forces between the positively charged nuclei are minimized by orienting the electrons between them and the repulsive forces between the negatively charged electrons are minimized by spinning the opposite way (electrons have two spin states: +1/2 and -1/2)
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; methane (CH4), the BTU carrying component of landfill gas is bound by covalent bonds; covalent bonds can also form in a chain or network within a solid
(diamond is the best example)

Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonds form when two or more atoms share valence electrons unequally ; if you imagine two atoms as two competitors at tug-of-war where the rope is the valence electron then in a
Figure 1: Basic bonding structures, notice how the ionic bond forms a charged molecule
1
The Covalent Bond , Bodner Research Group, Purdue University
2 The Covalent Bond , Bodner Research Group, Purdue University
1

2 covalent bond it is a flat tie and in an ionic bond one competitor is winning but the other one is still holding desperately onto the rope; ionic bonds result in charged molecules because the negatively charged valence electrons are not evenly distributed, these charged molecules can then fit nicely together to form ionic compounds
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 Metallic Bonds: Metals don’t have enough electrons to share solely between two atoms so metallic bonds form when groups of atoms share valence electrons; because these atoms are not tightly bound to any one atom they are delocalized and can move around through the metal (this is why metals are good conductors of electricity) 4 ; imagine that instead of tug-of-war, ten people are simply touching the rope

Molecular Bonds: Molecular bonds form when covalently bonded molecules are then fit together by relatively weak intermolecular forces like Hydrogen Bonds or the van der Waal’s forces holding solid carbon dioxide together
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Molecular dissociation occurs when thermal energy (heat) overcomes the strength of molecular bonds.
6 This causes molecules to break apart into their original atomic components.
Heat is actually a measure of how fast atoms are vibrating. At zero degrees
Kelvin there is no movement at all and all matter is in solid form. As atoms warm up they vibrate faster and faster.
Once the vibrations get strong enough solids break apart into liquids
(e.g. ice melts). If heat
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The Covalent Bond , Bodner Research Group, Purdue University
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“Atomics Bonds” lecture, Elgun, S., Materials Science 205, School of Engineering
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Technologies at Farmingdale State University
The Structure of Solids , Bodner Research Group, Purdue University
6 Pg. 6, The Physics of Plasmas, Fitzpatrick

keeps increasing liquids break apart into gases (e.g. water boils). As heat increases the violence of the shaking amplifies until finally gases decompose into negatively charged electrons and positively charged ions (i.e. plasma, the fourth state of matter).
7 Different molecular bonds have different strengths and require different levels of thermal energy
(temperature) to allow molecular dissociation. The adaptiveARC system uses UV radiation and pulsed plasma to catalyze this process. Remember that molecular dissociation breaks molecular bonds, atomic bonds survive the process.
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Our input feedstock for the adativeARC system is organic, i.e. the materials are carbon based. Carbon is an incredibly important element and is the foundation upon which the physical chemical structure of the living world is built. Because it is so important to our business it is likewise important for us to understand the basics of how our technology processes carbon-based materials.
The following reactions are the most important basic chemical conversions that occur as carbon is transformed from a solid into a gas
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:
C + 2 H
2
= CH
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C + H
2
O = CO + H
2
C + CO = 2 CO
The exothermic (heat producing) methane formation reaction is coupled with the endothermic (heat requiring) water-gas and Boudouard reactions to achieve high thermodynamic efficiency. The reactions are balanced by regulating the temperature of the system, understanding the chemical structure of the incoming feedstock, and manipulating moisture content.
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More complex organic compounds will eventually break down throughout our process until these reactions can occur and proceed to equilibrium. These reactions create syngas and are the chemical building blocks that power adativeARC systems.
Table 1 illustrates experimental results for the changes in enthalpy and exergy of the system. We can derive the equilibrium composition using these reactions and mass/energy balances.
7 Flash Pyrolysis, Biomass Technology Group
8 Pg. 6, The Physics of Plasmas, Fitzpatrick
9 Pg. 25, Thermodynamic Analysis of Biomass Gasification and Torrefaction, Prins
10 Pg. 25, Thermodynamic Analysis of Biomass Gasification and Torrefaction, Prins
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Table 1: Important Reactions in Gasification 11
Reaction  H (850  C) (kJ/mol)  G (850  C) (kJ/mol)
(1) C+2 H2=CH4
(2) C+H2O=CO+H2
(3) C+CO2=2 CO
(2-3)
CO+H2O=CO2+H2
(1-2)
CO+3 H2=CH4+H2O
C+O2=CO2
-91.0
135.8
169.8
-34.0
-226.6
-395.0
33.1
-25.4
-26.2
0.9
58.3
-396.0
Assumptions:
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•
Uniform temperature and pressure are assumed
•
No information about reaction pathways/ formation of intermediates
•
Tar is not modeled – solid carbon is used as a model component, which is a
measure for the extent of tar formation
•
No information about the rate of reactions, i.e. whether equilibrium is attained in practice.
Many high BTU feedstocks contain complex hydrocarbon chains. In order to access their energy content we need to break them down into simpler and lighter hydrocarbon chains
(by breaking carbon-carbon bonds) until they can be converted into syngas. This process is called “cracking.” This is a tried and true chemical process, for example, oil companies
“crack” crude at refineries and turn it into gasoline (shorter, lighter hydrocarbon chains) to power your car.
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When a hydrocarbon chain is broken it produces one alkane and one alkene. Both alkanes and alkenes are pure hydrocarbons but while alkenes contain at least one double carboncarbon bond alkanes only have single carbon-carbon bonds (these are also known as
“saturated hydrocarbons” because they contain as many hydrogen atoms as possible).
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Alkynes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond. adaptiveARC technology uses thermal cracking, i.e. we break up complex hydrocarbon chains by exposing them to high heat. Our pulsed plasma and UV radiation also catalyze the process.
11 Pg. 25, Thermodynamic Analysis of Biomass Gasification and Torrefaction, Prins
12 Pg. 25, Thermodynamic Analysis of Biomass Gasification and Torrefaction, Prins
13 Pg. 339, Industrial Gases, Downie
14 Structure and Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons, Bodner Research Group, Purdue
University

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Combustion is a chemical process where a material quickly reacts with oxygen and produces heat. The fuel involved undergoes a chemical conversion in the form of exothermic oxidation/reduction reactions.
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Important : Combustion and molecular dissociation are very, very different.
Remember, molecular dissociation is a form of thermal decomposition, molecules breaking apart into smaller components because of intense heat. Combustion involves a chemical conversion where molecules combine with oxygen atoms to form new compounds.
Incinerators use combustion to reduce the volume of waste, produce energy and manage toxics. In order to combust large volumes of Figure 3: The Combustion Mechanism waste efficiently they control “draft pressure” or the pressure of air they add to the processor (this is exactly the same reason medieval blacksmiths used bellows).
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Remember, for a material to combust it must react with oxygen so a lot of oxygen is needed to continuously combust large volumes of feedstock.
The problem is that many materials can react with excess oxygen to form toxic gaseous and particulate compounds as well as solid and liquid leftovers that are environmentally damaging and endanger public health.
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This is why incinerators produce such dangerous emissions and byproducts.
Important : adaptiveARC technology does gasification. Remember, gasification involves using a small, regulated amount of oxygen in the system (it is also known as partial oxidation pyrolysis ) while pyrolysis thermally degrades material in the complete absence of oxygen. Including a small amount of oxygen in the process allows for a higher level of thermodynamic efficiency because some of the heat in the processor is produced by a controlled amount of syngas combustion within the processor. Why does adaptiveARC’s technology not produce the same toxins as incinterators? Because gasification involved only a limited amount of oxygen (not enough to produce the same toxins) and because our “exhaust” from those carefully regulated oxidation/reduction reactions is all processed internally within the reactor and is never released, it is a closed system.
15 Combustion, Glenn Research Center, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
16 Pg. 866, Environmental Engineering, Salvato, Nemerow, and Argardy
17 Pg. 871, Environmental Engineering, Salvato, Nemerow, and Argardy