Practice 1. Geoecology and lanscape ecology
Landscape
Regarding the position, development and future of landscape ecology, we
should remember the numerous existing definitions of the term ‘landscape
ecology’ and its two roots: landscape and ecology. First, the scientific term
‘landscape’ was shaped by geographers, essentially by the German geographer and
scholar Alexander von Humboldt 200 years ago (the landscape as the total
character of a region). In 1850, Rosenkranz defined landscapes as hierarchically
organized local systems of all the kingdoms of nature. Neef (1967) characterized
landscape as a part of the earth’s surface with a uniform structure and functional
pattern. Both appearance and components (geofactors: relief, soil, climate, water
balance, flora, fauna, humans and their creations in the landscape), including their
spatial position, are concerned. Landscape is not however, only the sum of single
geofactors, but an integration forming the geographical complex (or geosystem).
Thus, landscape is from different spheres: inorganic spheres, biosphere and
sociosphere. According to Naveh (1987): “landscapes dealt with in their totality as
physical, ecological and geographical entities, integrating all natural and human
(caused) patterns and processes ...” or Forman and Godron (1986) defined
“landscape as a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting
ecosystems that is repeated in similar form throughout”. Leser (1997) regards the
landscape ecosystem as a spatial pattern of abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic
components which form a functional entity and serve as human’s environment.
Early definitions (19th and beginning 20th century) from Central and
Eastern Europe, where the geographical and the biological roots of landscape
ecology occur, reflect a holistic landscape conception. Later, influenced by the
rising analytical natural sciences, the “core of an all-embracing thought pattern was
not appreciated” (Lehmann 1986).
Still today, we also can observe repeated tendencies of reduction and
specification: landscapes consist of “structural components, or landscape elements,
(which) are patches of several origins, corridors of four types, and a matrix”
(Forman 1981) or “The (ideal) landscape is a primarily aesthetic phenomenon,
closer to the eyes than to the mind, more related to the heart, the soul, the moods
than to the intellect” (Hard 1970). We also find the rejection of the landscape
paradigm, as King (1999) asks: “Is there in fact a landscape level”, or if Widacki
(1994) wants to turn away from geocomplexes because we could fall back now on
“satellite images as well as the resulting possibilities of integration and
transformation of data read into computer with the aid of GIS”.
Generally we can realize, in view of the environmental problems coming to
the fore that landscape is regarded more and more as a complex, highlyintegrated
system.
Landscape ecology
The second part of the term landscape ecology – the science ecology – deals
with the investigation of relations between life and its abiotic environment (E.
Haeckel). The term landscape ecology was coined by the German biogeographer
Carl Troll at the end of the 1930s. Interpreting an East-African savannah landscape
with the help of aerial photographs, Troll was fascinated by the important scientific
findings due to the functional, vertical approach of ecologists with the spatial,
horizontal approach of geographers. But already earlier, A. Penck (1924) asked
about the earth’s carrying capacity, and S. Passarge (1912) used the term landscape
physiology (Finke 1994). Later, e.g., Schmithüsen, Neef, Haase, Richter, Barsch,
Schreiber, Leser and others did important work in landscape ecology in Germany,
and abroad. A similar development took place in Russia (e.g., Sukachev and Dylis
1964; Socawa 1974) and other Eastern European countries. ˇ
Since then there are at least two fundamental, different views on landscape
ecology (corresponding to its ‘mother sciences’):
– A more biological one, esp. in Northern America and some schools in
Europe (e.g., Forman and Godron (1986).
– A more geographical approach, esp. in Central and Eastern Europe (e.g.,
Neef 1967, Haase 1990, Richling 1994), but also in Latin America (Baume et al.
1994; Cervantes et al. 1999). This conception is often equated with geoecology,
which is not completely correct. The term geoecology was introduced by Troll
(1968) as a synonym to improve translatability, but it did not gain much
acceptance. Especially in Germany (e.g., Neef and his pupils), geoecology
embodies a division of landscape ecology dealing only with the abiotic issues
(such as soils, water balance). Leser (1997) distinguishes geoecology, bioecology
and the all-embracing landscape ecology (which also considers anthropogenic
factors).
The differences concerning these terms represent only one part of the
existing lack of clarity. Some definitions are both concise and comprehensive, e.g.,
Forman (1981): “... landscape ecology, thus, studies the structure, function and
development of landscapes”; or Leser (1997): “Landscape ecology deals with the
interrelations of all functional and visible factors representing the landscape
ecosystem.” According to Forman and Godron (1986) there are “three fundamental
characteristics of landscape ecology, ... the space relations – landscape structure,
their functional relationships - interaction, flow of material and energy and the time
relations – the change of the structure, characteristics and functions”. Other
definitions reflect a narrow view, e.g.: “Landscape ecology is the study of spatial
variation in landscapes at a variety of scales. It includes the biophysical and
societal causes and consequences of landscape heterogeneity” (IALE Executive
Committee, in Moss 1999). I’ll deepen this concern within the following section.
Other authors emphasize both the chorological and the ecosystem aspects of
landscape ecology, deriving from geographical and biological roots (Otahel 1999).
Naveh and Lieberman (1984) base landscape ecology “on a general systems
theory, biocybernetics, and ecosystemology” and emphasize the “active human
role in landscape”. This last-mentioned definition corresponds to the absolutely
welcome tendency to include human to landscape issues in an increasing manner.
The relation between basic and applied research is a further contentious
point. Some authors, e.g., Leser (1997), emphasize the importance of basic
research (without ignoring practical application). Jongman (1999) wrote:
“Landscape ecology is a field of science with perspectives for application. From
the 1970s there has been a mutual relationship between landscape ecology and
land-use planning and landscape management.” For other authors, a strong focus
on application is characteristic: “Landscape ecology is applied may landscape
planning oriented ecological research direction” (Haber 1979). It is “determined by
its goal – environmental protection. It means that it is an environmental research
field, i.e., the applied field of theoretically recognized disciplines” (Drdoš 1996).
At the same time, there are somewhat dangerous tendencies to define
landscape ecology too widely, i.e., to subsume under the term ‘landscape ecology’
all appearances being related to landscape in a certain manner: Landscape ecology
includes “perspectives as varied as theoretical ecology, human geography, landuse
planning, animal behaviour, sociology, resource management, photogrammetry
and remote sensing, agricultural policy, restoration ecology, or environmental
ethics” (Wiens and Moss 1999). For Miklós (1996) landscape ecology is “the
science of the environment in the wide sense of the word.” But not all issues which
are related to landscape are landscape ecology! Landscape ecology is a science.
Landscape planning is a procedure. Landscape aesthetics, perception, decision
making are not ecology! Landscape ecology itself cannot act! Remote sensing,
GIS, spatial statistics, and models, are tools. Landscapes have properties that go
beyond science. “Landscape ecology cannot explain all the processes, but can
undoubtedly help us to understand the complexity ...” (Farina 1998).
There is a real danger that the term landscape ecology may become wishywashy like terms as ecological equilibrium, ecological stability, ecological disaster,
or sustainability. I agree with Moss (1999) that landscape ecology is not the only
field which deals with the landscape and it certainly is not the all-embracing
environmental science. It is, however, a field with the potential to make a unique
contribution to solving a particular subset of natural-resource based issues.
Pointing to this fact, however, I do not reject the necessity of a holistic approach in
landscape ecology.
(By Olaf Bastian. Landscape Ecology – towards a unified discipline? // Landscape
Ecology 16: 757–766, 2001).
Task:
1. What is the main idea of the text?
2. How did you understand the differences between landscape ecology and
geoecology, which are often considered as synonyms.
3. Put in missing words.
characteristics
ecology
relationships
geographical
middle
complex
geographers
roots
coherence
term
The development of landscape _____________ has been cosmopolitan and
eclectic, borrowing perspectives from a host of biological and _______________
sub-disciplines and also being the heir to separate traditions originating in Europe,
Russia and the United States. The ________ of landscape ecology may be said to
begin in the _______ nineteenth century with the introduction of “landscape” as a
scientific __________ by the explorer-geographer Alexander Von Humboldt.
Humboldt viewed landscapes as exhibiting ____________ in spatial distribution
and interconnectedness of phenomena, and was a pioneer in the study of spatial
__________ between biological and physical phenomena. Von Humboldt’s work
laid the foundations for much of modern geography and led directly to advances in
the study of landscape ________________. Extending Von Humboldt’s work, S.
Passarge proposed “landscape science” as a new subfield of geography in 1919
(Troll 1971). Passarge’s framework for landscape science was adopted and
expanded by a series of Russian ____________. C.S. Berg described a landscape
as a “community of a higher order, consisting of communities of
organisms…together with the ___________ of inorganic phenomnena”.
(By F. Huettmann and S.A. Cushman (eds.). Spatial Complexity, 65 Informatics, and
Wildlife Conservation. DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-87771-4_4, © Springer, 2009).
4. Match the definitions with the following terms.
landscape
landscape ecology
landscape ecosystem
ecology
a spatial pattern of abiotic, biotic and
anthropogenic components which form a
functional entity and serve as human’s
environment
science, dealing with the investigation of
relations between life and its abiotic
environment
the study of spatial variation in landscapes
at a variety of scales
a part of the earth’s surface with a uniform
structure and functional pattern
5. Translate the following sentences into English.
1) Термин «геоэкология», введенный немецким ученым К. Троллем в
научную литературу, получил в настоящее время весьма широкое
распространение.
2) К. Тролль употребил термин «геоэкология» применительно к
изучению ландшафтов.
3) Д.Г. Зилинг считает объектом геоэкологии не геосферы,
экосистемы.
4) В понимании К. Тролля геоэкология представляет собой
ландшафтную экологию.
5) Ландшафтная экология изучает комплексные взаимодействия в
экосистемах с географической и экологической точек зрения.