OTHER DRUGS
KEY POINTS

Over the last decade, the number of performance and image enhancing drugs detected
at the Australian border has increased 751.6 per cent, with the 10 356 detections in
2012–13 the highest number on record.

The number of national steroid seizures and arrests continued to increase in 2012–13
and are the highest number on record.

There was a record 509 tryptamine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13.

There was a record 277 anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 2012–13.

The 565 national hallucinogen arrests reported in 2012–13 is the highest number on
record.
ANABOLIC AGENTS AND OTHER SELECTED HORMONES
Other drugs and substances—collectively referred to in this report as ‘other drugs’—are
being increasingly recognised as part of Australia’s illicit drug market. This chapter focuses
on the main drugs and substances in this category: anabolic agents and other selected
hormones, tryptamines, anaesthetics, pharmaceuticals, drug analogues and new
psychoactive substances and other drugs not elsewhere classified.
MAIN FORMS
Anabolic agents and selected hormones are commonly referred to as performance and
image enhancing drugs (PIEDs). The Australian Standard Classification of Drugs of Concern
distinguishes four classes of substances as anabolic agents and selected hormones:




anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS)
beta-2-agonists
other anabolic agents and selected hormones
peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues (ABS 2011).
ANABOLIC-ANDROGENIC STEROIDS (AAS), BETA-2-AGONISTS AND OTHER
ANABOLIC AGENTS AND SELECTED HORMONES
AAS, commonly referred to as steroids, are synthetic variants of the male sex hormone
testosterone. ‘Anabolic’ refers to the muscle-building effects of the drug, while ‘androgenic’
refers to their masculinising effects. AAS may be derived from natural sources, but can also
be synthetically manufactured for therapeutic use in human and veterinary treatment. AAS
are used in the treatment of diseases that reduce lean muscle mass, including cancer and
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and conditions of steroid deficiency, such as
delayed puberty. In addition to use in treatment, AAS are also used to enhance image and
sports performance (NIDA 2012).
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The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) categorises anabolic agents as either AAS or other
anabolic agents. Both AAS and other anabolic agents are prohibited substances under the
World Anti-Doping Code 2013 Prohibited List (WADA 2012).
AAS are commonly administered by injection, orally, or via cream, gel or skin patches. Side
effects of AAS use may include extreme mood swings, mania, depression, paranoia,
delusions, impaired judgement, organ damage—including cardiovascular damage—high
blood pressure and blood clots. Male-specific effects of use may include shrinkage of the
testicles, reduced sperm-count or infertility, development of breasts and increased risk of
prostate cancer. Female-specific effects of use may include the growth of facial hair,
menstrual problems and baldness (Ip et al. 2012; NIDA 2012).
The use of beta-2-agonists is prohibited under the World Anti-Doping Code 2013 Prohibited
List, with the exception of specific asthma treatments and related doses administered via
inhalation. Beta-2-agonists in aerosol form are commonly used in the treatment of asthma to
relax muscles in the airway. However, when taken into the bloodstream, they may have
anabolic effects. Beta-2-agonists, such as clenbuterol, may be used either alone or in
conjunction with other substances to promote muscle definition and growth (anabolic effect)
and decrease body fat (catabolic effect). The most frequently reported side effects
associated with the use of beta-2-agonists include increased body temperature, nausea,
headaches, insomnia, tremors and cardiovascular conditions. The misuse of beta-2-agonists
may also lead to muscle cramps, palpitations and nervousness (NDARC 2005;
NDARC 2006; USADA 2013; WADA 2012).
AAS and other anabolic agents commonly used in Australia are outlined in Table 25.
TABLE 25: AAS and other anabolic agents commonly used in Australia
Drug name
Potential effects
Brand name
Forms
AAS—Anabolic
Used to increase muscle
mass through increased
retention of protein
Deca-durabolin, Anadrol-50,
Oxandrin
Ampoule, vial, prepacked
syringe, tablet
AAS—Androgenic
Used to increase muscle
mass by increasing male sex
hormone levels
Depo-testosterone,
Sustanon, Androil
Testocaps
Vial, ampoule, prepacked
syringe, capsule
Beta-2-agonists (including
clenbuterol)
Commonly used to treat
asthma, however when
taken into the blood-stream
increases muscle mass by
mimicking the effects of
adrenaline and nonadrenaline
Bricanyl, Ventolin, Spiropent
(clenbuterol) and
Ventipulmin (clenbuterol)
Ampoule, rotacap, inhaler,
nebuliser, tablet
PEPTIDE HORMONES, MIMETICS AND ANALOGUES
While AAS remain widely used, the PIEDs market has evolved to include an ever-expanding
range of substances which manipulate the body’s hormonal system. These substances,
which include peptide hormones, mimetics1 and analogues, may provide similar effects to
AAS and are considered by users to be new generation PIEDs.
Hormones are vital for the effective functioning of the human body and are naturally
produced. Synthetic mimetics and analogues of these naturally occurring hormones have
been developed to assist in the treatment of a number of medical conditions, with some
diverted for non-medical use as a consequence of their performance enhancing effects.
1
Substances that are chemically different, but which mimic the pharmacological effects of a particular substance.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
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While peptides can be used on their own to promote muscle growth, these substances are
also used in combination with anabolic steroids to maintain muscle gains.
Peptide hormones which have potential performance enhancing properties are listed in the
World Anti-Doping Code 2013. These include erythropoietin (EPO), human growth hormone
(hGH), insulin-like growth factors (IGF-1), gonadotrophins (such as luteinising hormone [LH]
and human chorionic gonadotrophin [hCG]), insulins and other growth factors affecting
muscle, tendon or ligament proteins (ASADA 2013).2
EPO is a synthetic hormone, which stimulates bone marrow to produce more red blood cells
and increases oxygen-absorption, thereby improving endurance and increasing metabolism
and muscular healing. Side effects of EPO use may include increased risk of thrombosis in
the heart, lungs and/or brain. Users of hCG may seek to decrease their body fat and improve
brain activity. The use of hCG may boost natural testosterone production after a long AAScycle and may serve as a masking agent to avoid testing positive to other substances. Side
effects of hCG use may include gynaecomastia, depression, irritability and headaches. Side
effects of hGH use may include increases in the size of the jaw, chin, fingers, hands, toes,
feet, nose, cheekbone and internal organs (NADA 2012; NDS 2006; NSW Health 2013;
USADA 2013).
Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues are generally administered via injection, nasal
spray or orally. Despite potentially serious side effects, individuals continue the non-medical
use of both natural and synthetic hormones. Side effects of hormone use vary and may be
particular to the hormone used. For example, effects of EPO use may include increased
blood pressure, convulsions, influenza-like symptoms, skin reactions, thrombosis, heart
attack and stroke. Effects of hGH use may include low blood sugar, fluid retention,
inadequate thyroid function, heart damage, impotence, premature ageing and death. Effects
of hCG use may include over-stimulation of the hormonal system, acne, tiredness, mood
changes, fluid retention, hair loss, enlargement of the prostate, heart disease, liver disease
and infertility (Kanayama & Pope 2012; NDS 2006; Stenman 2009; UNODC 2013a).
Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues commonly used in Australia are listed in
Table 26.
TABLE 26: Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues commonly used in Australia
Drug name
Potential effects
Brand name
Forms
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Increases endurance and recovery
from anaerobic exercise
Eprex, Aranesp
Ampoule, pre-packed
syringe
Human chorionic
gonadotrophin (hCG)
Used to manage the side effects of
AAS use such as gynaecomastiaa
and shrinking testicles
APL, Pregnyl, Profasi,
Novarel, Repronex
Vial, ampoule
Human growth hormone
(hGH)
Used to increase muscle size and
strength
Norditropin, NorditropinSimpleXx, Genotropin,
Humatrope, Saizen,
Scitropi
Penset, vial, auto
injector cartridge
Insulin
Used because of the perception that
it contributes to increased muscle
bulkb
NovoRapid, Apidra,
Humalog, Hypurin
Neutral, Actrapid,
Humulin R, Protaphane,
NovoMix 30
Vial, penset,
pre-packed syringe
2
For a substance or method to be prohibited, it must meet at least two of the following three conditions: potential
to enhance or does enhance performance in sport, potential to risk the athlete’s health and/or the World AntiDoping Agency has determined that the substance or method violates the spirit of sport (ASADA 2013).
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a.
b.
Drug name
Potential effects
Brand name
Forms
Pituitary and synthetic
gonadotrophins
Used to overcome the side effects of
AAS use or as a masking agent
Clomid, Bravelle
Ampoule, tablet
Insulin-like Growth Factor
Used to increase muscle bulk and
reduce body fat
Increlex
Vial
Corticotrophins
Used because of its antiinflammatory properties and for mood
elevating effects
Synacthen Depot
Ampoule
Anti-oesterones
Used to manage the side effects of
AAS use such as gynaecomastiaa
Nolvadex
Tablet
The development of breast-like tissue in males.
There is no scientific evidence of this.
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
There is no regulation on the production and trafficking of PIEDs in some parts of the world.
Pharmaceuticals diverted from the licit market to the illicit market, combined with the growing
number of unregulated online pharmacies, continue to ensure direct supply and unlimited
access to PIEDs (Paoli 2012).
International open source reports indicate that countries such as China, India, Pakistan,
Thailand and some Eastern European countries are primary source countries for PIEDs, with
numerous production sites and well-established trafficking routes. According to open source
reporting, China and India are the fastest growing suppliers of PIEDs to the international
market (ACMD 2010; SMH 2012).
In 2012, the European Journal of Crime reported that networks of producers and traders—
which includes athletes’ support personnel and representatives of national sport federations
and governing bodies—may supply PIEDs to some athletes and non-competitive users, such
as fitness centres and dietary supplements shops (Paoli 2012).
The global PIEDs market is supplied by a range of methods, including legal and illegal
importation and domestic diversion from the legitimate market (Marcley et al. 2013). Due to
the varying legal status of PIEDs internationally, producers can manufacture and stockpile
PIEDs in countries where they are unregulated and utilise online websites to reach the
global market (Paoli 2012). In the United States of America (US), anabolic steroids are
primarily imported illegally, but are also diverted from legitimate sources, either through theft
or inappropriate prescribing (US DEA 2011).
Increased intelligence sharing and collaboration between international law enforcement
agencies and other government bodies will continue to support WADA in their efforts to
detect and deter the use of PIEDs by professional athletes (ADF 2013a; Paoli 2012;
WADA 2012).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service continues to disrupt the movement of
PIEDs3 into Australia.
3
PIEDs detected by the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service includes the following: anabol,
dianabol, androstenedione, norandrostenedione, chronic gonadotrophins, clomiphenes, dehydroepiandrosterone
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
100
The number of PIEDs detected at the Australian border has continued to increase since
2004–05. The total number of PIEDs detected at the Australian border increased by
18.7 per cent this reporting period, from 8 726 in 2011–12 to 10 356 in 2012–13, with the
10 356 detections the highest number on record (see Figure 50). In this reporting period,
there were 1 054 detections of clenbuterol, a common beta-2-agonist.
FIGURE 50: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections at the Australian border,
2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
12000
10000
Number
8000
6000
4000
2000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
Despite a 42.2 per cent decrease in the number of steroid detections this reporting period,
from 6 126 in 2011–12 to 3 543 in 2012–13, the 3 543 steroid detections in 2012–13 is the
third highest number reported in the last decade (see Figure 51). Hormone detections
increased 162.0 per cent, from 2 600 in 2011–12 to 6 813 in 2012–13, the highest number
reported in the last decade (see Figure 51).
(DHEA), prasterone, erythropoietin, GH releasing hormones, somatorelines, methandienone, methandrostenelone,
nandrolone, oxymetholone, stanozolol, hGH, somatropin/s and testosterone.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
101
FIGURE 51: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections, by category, at the Australian
border, 2003–04 to 2012–134 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Hormones
Steroids
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
4
From 2011–12, DHEA detections have been incorporated into steroid detection numbers. All the data contained
in Figure 51 has been updated to reflect this change to enable direct comparison across the decade.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
102
IMPORTATION METHODS
Similar to previous reporting periods, parcel post was the most commonly detected method
of importation by number, accounting for 88.2 per cent of PIED detections at the Australian
border in 2012–13 (see Figure 52). There were 973 detections of clenbuterol this reporting
period, which were primarily detected in the postal stream.
FIGURE 52: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections at the Australian border, as a
proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and
Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (7.2%)
Air passenger/crew (4.6%)
Parcel post (88.2%)
Sea Cargo (<0.1%)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 70 countries were identified as embarkation points for PIEDs detected
at the Australian border, compared with 63 in 2011–12. The prominent embarkation points
for PIEDs this reporting period were the US, China and Thailand, accounting for
62.9 per cent of the total number of PIED detections in 2012–13. Other major embarkation
points this reporting period include Hong Kong, United Kingdom (UK), Canada, India,
Turkey, Greece and Moldova. There were a total of 24 embarkation points identified for
clenbuterol in 2012–13.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 0.1 per cent of
the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported recent5 non-medical steroid use
(AIHW 2011). According to the Australian Needle and Syringe Program Survey (ANSPS),
the prevalence of respondents reporting PIEDs as the drug last injected increased, from
5 per cent in 2011 to 7 per cent in 2012. In 2012, of the respondents who recently initiated6
injecting drug use, 55 per cent reported PIEDs as the last drug injected. Among males who
were new initiates to injecting, the proportion of those reporting PIEDs as the last drug
injected increased, from 53 per cent in 2011 to 68 per cent in 2012. Reported figures of use
specific to the states and territories varied, with the prevalence of injecting PIEDs increasing
5
6
In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview.
Less than 3 years since first injection.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
103
in New South Wales and Queensland. In those states, prevalence increased from 2 per cent
in 2008 to 12 per cent in 2012 and from 1 per cent in 2008 to 11 per cent in 2012
respectively. The reported prevalence of injecting PIEDs was stable at 2 per cent or less in
all other states and territories (Iversen and Maher 2013).
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents
reporting steroid use at some stage in their lifetime decreased, from 8 per cent in 2011 to
6 per cent in 2012. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent7 use
remained stable at 2 per cent. In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the
proportion of respondents reporting steroid use at some stage in their lifetime decreased,
from 4 per cent in 2011 to 2 per cent. In the same study, the proportion of respondents
reporting recent steroid use also decreased, from 2 per cent in 2011 to 1 per cent in 2012.
Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of recent steroid users has
decreased to less than 1 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns
2013).
PRICE
National law enforcement data on the price of PIEDs is limited. In 2012–13, the price for a
single 10 millilitre vial of testosterone ranged between $120 and $250, with a per vial price of
between $140 and $190 for 10 vials reported in Queensland. Prices reported per vial in
Queensland for larger quantities ranged between $130 and $180 for 20 vials and between
$110 and $160 for 50 vials.
In 2012–13, the price for a 10 millilitre vial of anabolic steroids ranged between $230 and
$300, with a per vial price of $140 for 10 vials reported in Queensland. Prices reported per
vial in Queensland for larger quantities were $180 for 20 vials and $160 for 50 vials.
AVAILABILITY
Access to PIEDs is facilitated by purchases on the internet. According to the 2010 NDSHS,
1.0 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older was offered or had the
opportunity to use steroids in the 12 months preceding interview, compared to 1.3 per cent in
2007. The 20–29-year-old age group reported the highest proportion at 2.0 per cent (AIHW
2011).
SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
In 2012–13, the number of national steroid seizures increased by 59.1 per cent, from 208 in
2011–12 to 331 in 2012–13, with the 331 seizures this reporting period the highest number
on record. While the weight of national steroid seizures decreased 44.2 per cent this
reporting period, from 33.7 kilograms in 2011–12 to 18.8 kilograms in 2012–13, it is the
second highest weight reported in the last decade (see Figure 53).
The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in
the 6 months preceding interview.
7
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
104
FIGURE 53: National steroid seizures, by number and weight 2003–04 to 2012–13
40
Weight
350
Number
35
300
250
25
200
20
150
15
Number
Weight (kg)
30
100
10
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
0
2005–06
0
2004–05
50
2003–04
5
New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national steroid
seizures, accounting for 47.4 per cent of the number and 31.9 per cent of the weight national
steroid seizures this reporting period. South Australia reported the highest percentage
change in both the number and weight of steroid seizures in 2012–13 (see Table 27).
TABLE 27: Number, weight and percentage change of national steroid seizures, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Number
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
2011–12
144
8
28
1
5
0
12
10
208
Weight (grams)
2012–13
157
18
57
31
13
0
14
41
331
% change
2011–12
2012–13
% change
9.0
125.0
103.6
3 000.0
160.0
26 898
5 985
216
31
236
0
315
60
6 020
2 677
4 618
3 373
102
0
816
1 280
18 886
-77.6
-55.3
2 038.0
10 780.6
-56.8
0
159.0
2 033.3
-44.0
0
16.7
310.0
59.1
Total
33 741
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
National steroid arrests have been increasing since 2005–06. This reporting period, national
steroid arrests increased 29.4 per cent, from 511 in 2011–12 to 661 in 2012–13, the highest
number on record. Consumer arrests accounted for 77.0 per cent of national steroid arrests
this reporting period, with Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reporting more
provider than consumer arrests (see Figure 54).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
105
FIGURE 54: Number of national steroid arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Total
Consumer
Provider
700
600
Number
500
400
300
200
100
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
In 2012–13, New South Wales, South Australia and the Australian Capital Territory reported
a decrease in steroid arrests (see Table 28). Over the last decade, Queensland has
continued to account for the highest proportion of national steroid arrests, accounting for
59.3 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. Tasmania reported the greatest percentage increase in
steroid arrests this reporting period, however, the number of arrests remains low.
TABLE 28: Number and percentage change of national steroid arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests
a
State/Territory
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
41
62
296
10
65
8
11
18
2012–13
39
88
392
8
101
13
14
6
% change
-4.9
41.9
32.4
-20.0
55.4
62.5
27.3
-66.7
511
661
29.4
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
106
TRYPTAMINES
MAIN FORMS
Tryptamines are hallucinogenic substances that act upon the central nervous system,
distorting mood, thought and perception. Some are found naturally in a variety of flowering
plants, leaves, seeds and in spore-forming plants such as psilocybin-containing mushrooms,
while others, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and diethyltryptamine, are
synthetically manufactured (EMCDDA 2013a; UNODC 2011a).
Tryptamine use may cause hallucinations—seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting or touching
non-existent objects or existing ones in a distorted way. Other short-term effects of use may
include decreased ability to make sensible judgements and recognise common danger, thus
making users susceptible to accidents and injury. Long-term use may lead to dissociative
experiences—a psychiatric disorder characterised by a reversible amnesia relating to
personal identity (AIC 2011; NIDA 2009; UNODC 2013a).
The following section will cover the two common tryptamines illicitly used in Australia:
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)—a synthetic drug—and psilocybin, a substance found in
various species of mushrooms.
LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE (LSD)
LSD is manufactured from lysergic acid, which is found in ergot, a fungus that grows on rye
and other grains. Often referred to as ‘acid’, LSD is among the most potent mood-changing
chemicals, with only a small amount needed to cause visual hallucinations and distortions,
known as ‘trips’. LSD is normally produced as a tartrate salt, which is colourless, odourless
and water soluble. LSD is available in paper squares, sugar cubes, tablets and liquid form.
LSD is most commonly sold on impregnated, single dose squares of blotting paper called
tabs. Usually taken orally, other methods of LSD administration include snorting, injecting,
smoking and shelving8 (NIDA 2009; Sindicich & Burns 2012).
Short-term effects of LSD use may include extreme emotional swings, fear, panic and
paranoia. Long-term effects of LSD use may include ‘flashbacks’,9 impaired memory and
concentration and increased potential risk of mental illness10 (ADF 2013b).
PSILOCYBIN-CONTAINING MUSHROOMS
Psilocybin is a chemical with hallucinogenic properties that is found in certain species of
mushrooms, often referred to as ‘magic mushrooms’, which affect the central nervous
system and alters a person’s mood, thinking and behaviour. Grown in the forests of Victoria,
New South Wales and some areas of Queensland and Western Australia, the most
commonly consumed varieties of psilocybin-containing mushrooms in Australia are
psilocybe cubensis (‘gold tops’), psilocybe subaeruginosa and copelandia cyanescens
(‘blue meanies’) and psilocybe semilanceata (‘liberty caps’) (Cunningham 2008;
WA DAO 2005).
Also known as ‘shafting’, the drug is inserted into the anus or the vagina to avoid irritation to the user’s stomach.
Users may experience recurrences of certain aspects of drug experiences, referred to as flashbacks. Flashbacks
can persist in some users and lead to a condition known as hallucinogen persisting perceptual disorder.
10 Mental illness may include prolonged psychosis, depression and personality disruption in users with a
predisposition to the condition.
8
9
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
107
Hallucinogenic mushrooms are available fresh, treated or preserved, or in powder or capsule
form. Usually sold as dried mushrooms, they can be eaten raw, brewed as a tea or
combined with other foods to mask their bitter taste. The potency of hallucinogenic
mushrooms varies and is dependant on species, growing conditions, harvest period and
form (EMCDDA 2013a).
Visually distinguishing between psilocybin-containing mushrooms and poisonous varieties is
difficult. Therefore, accidental consumption of poisonous mushrooms may occur and result
in permanent liver damage or death. Short-term effects of psilocybin-containing mushroom
use may include drowsiness, paranoia and panic attacks. Long-term effects may include
impaired memory and increased risk of mental illness (NDARC 2012; NIDA 2009).
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
According to the 2013 United Nations report on the challenge of new psychoactive
substances, psilocin, psilocybin, diethyltryptamine hydrochloride (DET), dimethyltryptamine
(DMT) and etryptamine are the only tryptamines under international control (listed in
Schedule I of the 1971 Convention). While psilocybin-containing mushrooms continue to be
harvested, tryptamines are also synthesised to mimic the effects of psilocybin
(UNODC 2013a; UNODC 2013b).
According to the 2013 European Drug Report, the prevalence of LSD and hallucinogenic
mushroom use in Europe has remained relatively low and stable for a number of years
(EMCDDA 2013b). According to the 2011 National Survey on Drug Use and Health,
23 million people in the US population aged 12 years and older had used LSD in their
lifetime (DEA 2013).
Key findings on adolescent drug use in the US in 2012 reported that LSD use has decreased
considerably and no longer accounts for the greatest proportion of reported hallucinogen
use, with increases in the reported use of psilocybin. Of the students in years 8, 10 and
12 involved in the study, the year 12 students reported the highest proportion of
hallucinogen use, both within their lifetime and in the past year, with reported use exceeding
that reported for other illicit drugs including MDMA, methylamphetamine, cocaine and heroin
(Johnston et al. 2013).
Internationally, there is limited reporting available on the scale of cultivation of
psilocybin-containing mushrooms. According to media reporting, in September 2012,
approximately 62 kilograms of psychedelic mushrooms was seized in Ohio. Believed to be
the largest mushroom seizure in the state, the seizure had an estimated value of
US$3.1 million (Dungjen 2012).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
LSD and psilocybin-containing mushrooms are the most common tryptamines detected at
the Australian border. This reporting period the number of tryptamine detections at the
Australian border increased by 258.5 per cent, from 142 in 2011–12 to 509 in 2012–13, the
highest number on record. Detections in this reporting period include—but is not limited to—
344 LSD detections and 123 psilocybin-containing mushroom detections (see Figure 55).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
108
FIGURE 55: Number of tryptamine detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
600
500
Number
400
300
200
100
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
IMPORTATION METHOD
The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of tryptamine detections at
the Australian border. In 2012–13, of the 509 tryptamine border detections, 505 detections
were in the postal stream. Of these, 489 detections weighed less than 100 grams each. All
of the psilocybin mushroom detections this reporting period occurred in the postal stream. Of
the 344 LSD detections in 2012–13, all but 4 were in the postal stream.
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 19 countries were identified as embarkation points for tryptamines
detected at the Australian border, compared with 8 countries in 2011–12. The Netherlands
accounted for 73.9 per cent of the number of tryptamine detections this reporting period.
Other major embarkation points in 2012–13 include the US, Spain, the UK, Canada,
Germany, Brazil, China, Israel and Poland.
Canada accounted for 35.2 per cent of LSD detections in 2012–13, with 121 detections. Of
the 123 psilocybin-containing mushroom detections, 63 were from the Netherlands and
38 from Canada, which accounted for 82.1 per cent of psilocybin-containing mushroom
detections this reporting period. Other major embarkation points in 2012–13 include the US,
Germany, the UK and Israel.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 8.8 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years
or older reported using hallucinogens at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey,
1.4 per cent reported recent use of hallucinogens, the first increase reported since 1998
(AIHW 2011).
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, 65 per cent of respondents reported
having used hallucinogens at some stage in their lifetime, which remained consistent with
figures reported in 2011. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent
use of hallucinogens decreased, from 8 per cent in 2011 to 6 per cent in 2012. LSD and
mushrooms were the most common hallucinogens used (Stafford & Burns 2013).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
109
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting the
use of mushrooms at some stage in their lifetime increased marginally, from 70 per cent in
2011 to 71 per cent in 2012. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting
recent LSD use decreased, from 46 per cent in 2011 to 34 per cent in 2012. This is the
lowest percentage reported since 2003. The proportion of respondents reporting the recent
use of mushrooms also decreased, from 29 per cent in 2011 to 27 per cent in 2012. Early
findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent
mushroom use remained unchanged at 27 per cent, while the proportion of respondents
reporting recent LSD use increased to 43 per cent. This is the second highest proportion
reported since 2003 (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).11
PRICE
In 2012–13, law enforcement data on the price of psilocybin-containing mushrooms was
unavailable. Nationally, the price per tab of LSD ranged between $10 and $50 in 2012–13.
In a 2012 study of regular ecstasy users, respondents reported the median price per tab of
LSD ranged between $15 and $22.50 nationally. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate
a price range of between $15 and $32.50 (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).12
AVAILABILITY
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 3.7 per cent of the population had been offered or given the
opportunity to use hallucinogens in the 12 months preceding interview. The proportion was
higher in the 18–19 year (11.7 per cent) and 20–29 year age groups (11.0 per cent)
(AIHW 2011).
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, 65 per cent of respondents reported
using hallucinogens in their lifetime, which remained consistent with figures reported in 2011.
However, only 6 per cent reported recent use of hallucinogens, a decrease from 8 per cent
in 2011. LSD and mushrooms were the most common hallucinogens used
(Stafford & Burns 2013).
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on
the availability of LSD in Australia, 63 per cent reported LSD as being easy or very easy to
obtain, compared with 73 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate there
has been an increase in availability of LSD, with 67 per cent of respondents reporting LSD
as easy or very easy to obtain. There are no figures on the availability of
psilocybin-containing mushrooms (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
In 2012–13, the number of national hallucinogen seizures increased by 11.9 per cent, from
285 in 2011–12 to 319 in 2012–13, the highest number reported in the last decade. The
weight of national hallucinogen seizures decreased by 84.7 per cent, from 23.5 kilograms in
2011–12 to 3.6 in 2012–13 and is the lowest weight reported since
2008–09 (see Figure 56).
11
In response to the difficulties experienced by smaller states and territories in recruiting regular ecstasy users, the
recruitment criteria was broadened in 2012 to include recent use of any psychostimulant. As such, caution should
be exercised when comparing to previous reporting periods.
12 Due to the small numbers of respondents providing price comment in the study (n<10), these findings should be
interpreted with caution.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
110
FIGURE 56: National hallucinogen seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
25
Weight
350
Number
300
250
15
200
150
10
Number
Weight (kg)
20
100
5
50
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
Since 2005–06, New South Wales has accounted for the greatest proportion of national
hallucinogen seizures, accounting for 62.4 per cent of the number and 66.5 per cent of the
weight of national seizures in 2012–13. New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and the
Australian Capital Territory reported an increase in the number of hallucinogen seizures this
reporting period, while Queensland and Tasmania were the only states or territories to report
an increase in seizure weight, increasing from 224 grams in 2011–12 to 278 grams, and 0
grams to 31 grams respectively in 2012–13 (see Table 29).
TABLE 29: Number, weight and percentage change of national hallucinogen seizures, 2011–12 to
2012–13
Number
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
163
41
21
3
50
0
7
0
285
Weight (grams)
2012–13
199
52
20
2
36
2
7
1
319
% change
2011–12
2012–13
22.1
26.8
-4.8
-33.3
-28.0
–
0.0
–
11.9
7 492
5 338
224
365
10 137
0
2
0
23 558
2 444
524
278
32
364
31
2
0
3 675
% change
-67.4
-90.2
24.1
-91.2
-96.4
–
0.0
–
-84.4
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
Figure 57 illustrates the number of national hallucinogen arrests since 2003–04. Over the
last decade, hallucinogen arrests have increased 355.6 per cent, from 124 in 2003–04 to
565 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. In 2012–13, consumer arrests accounted for
78.2 per cent of national hallucinogen arrests. However, South Australia and Tasmania
reported more hallucinogen provider than consumer arrests this reporting period.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
111
FIGURE 57: Number of national hallucinogen arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Total
Consumer
Provider
600
Number
500
400
300
200
100
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
In 2012–13, the number of hallucinogen arrests increased 16.7 per cent, from 484 in
2011–12 to 565 in 2012–13 (see Table 30). Queensland continues to account for the
greatest proportion of national hallucinogen arrests, accounting for 35.9 per cent of national
arrests in 2012–13.
TABLE 30: Number and percentage change of national hallucinogen arrests, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Arrests
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
127
56
192
11
91
3
3
1
2012–13
157
70
203
16
111
3
4
1
% change
23.6
25.0
5.7
45.5
22.0
0.0
33.3
0.0
484
565
16.7
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
112
ANAESTHETICS
MAIN FORMS
Originally developed for medical and veterinary use, a number of anaesthetics are diverted
for illicit use. The following section will cover ketamine hydrochloride (ketamine) and
gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), two common illicitly used anaesthetics.
KETAMINE
Ketamine hydrochloride, commonly referred to as K, Super K, Special K and Vitamin K, is a
white crystalline powder, structurally and pharmacologically similar to phencyclidine (PCP).
Used as an anaesthetic by veterinarians and medical professionals, it is used illicitly for its
sedative and hallucinogenic effects. Classed as a dissociative anaesthetic, it induces
feelings of detachment and ‘out of body experiences’, with higher doses producing full
anaesthesia. Ketamine is commonly sold in three forms—powder, tablet and liquid—and is
often swallowed, snorted or injected. It can also be combined with other substances, such as
cannabis or tobacco and smoked (DEA 2012; NSW Health 2012).
Short-term effects of ketamine use may include general aches and pains, poor coordination,
amnesia, impaired judgement and disorientation. Long-term effects of ketamine use may
include reduced ability to concentrate, personality and mood changes, depression and
bladder conditions.13 Use of ketamine in combination with depressant drugs such as alcohol,
heroin or tranquillisers, may result in vital organ-failure (ADF 2013c; Curcio 2012;
DoHA 2010).
GAMMA-HYDROXYBUTYRATE (GHB) AND RELATED SUBSTANCES
GHB—also known as fantasy, grievous bodily harm or GBH, liquid ecstasy and blue nitro—is
found naturally in the body in small quantities and may be synthetically produced. First
synthesised in 1960, GHB was originally developed as an anaesthetic due to its ability to
rapidly permeate the blood–brain barrier and cause sleepiness. GHB acts as a central
nervous system depressant, slowing messages travelling between the brain and the rest of
the body (ADF 2013d; NSW Health 2006; Roll et al. 2012; WHO 2012).
GHB is readily manufactured from its precursors, gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and
1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD). Both GBL and 1,4-BD metabolise into GHB in the body and are
used as industrial solvents in industrial chemical processes, including the production of
polymers. GHB use may promote growth hormone production, as such GHB may be used by
some individuals to aid in fat reduction and muscle-building. GHB use may also enhance
euphoria and facilitate sexual assault. High doses and regular use of GHB can lead to
tolerance and—if discontinued—withdrawal symptoms. Users of stimulants such as
amphetamines and ecstasy may use GHB to alleviate the effects of these stimulants. The
competing effects of stimulant and depressant drugs may lead to a cycle of dependence
(ADF 2013b; WHO 2012).
GHB may appear as a colourless or bright blue liquid— which is bitter or salty-tasting—less
commonly a crystal powder, and is usually sold in small bottles or vials. GHB is typically
administered orally (swallowed) or intravenously (injected) (ADF 2013b; WHO 2012).
13
Ketamine use has been linked to cystitis, which can lead to blood in urine, incontinence, severe pain and kidney
failure.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
113
The effects of GHB use appear to vary greatly according to the amount used, with increased
risk of overdose as a consequence of the small dosage units. Effects may include
hallucinations, tremors, decreased body temperature, blackouts, memory lapses, seizures,
respiratory failure, coma or death. The possible presence of solvents or heavy-metal
contaminants in GHB also pose additional health risks to users (NSW Health 2006;
Roll et al. 2012; WHO 2012).
The risk of overdose increases when GHB is mixed with alcohol. Overdose may result in
respiratory depression, rapid onset of drowsiness, muscle spasms, movement and speech
impairments, memory loss and vomiting (NSW Health 2006).
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
Global seizures of ketamine remained stable in 2012. According to UNODC reporting, many
of the seized tablets sold as 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA, commonly
referred to as ‘ecstasy’) in East and South-East Asia contain a variety of other psychoactive
substances such as ketamine. According to media reporting, India remains a large
manufacturer of ketamine, which is smuggled to the expanding South-East Asia market in
liquid, powder and capsule form (Tan 2012). According to a health report the number of
users of ‘club drugs’—including ketamine, methylamphetamine, GBL and mephedrone—
seeking treatment increased, from 4 656 in 2005–06 to 6 486 in 2011 (NTA 2012). According
to UNODC reporting, in New Zealand, GHB/GBL is often sold with methylamphetamine and
marketed to assist with the come-down effects related to amphetamine-type-stimulants
(ATS) use (UNODC 2012; UNODC 2013c).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
Anaesthetic detections at the Australian border include only GHB, GBL and ketamine
detections.
In 2012–13, the number of anaesthetics detected at the Australian border increased by
161.3 per cent, from 106 in 2011–12 to 277 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. The
total number of GHB and GBL detections increased by 66.0 per cent, from 47 in 2011–12 to
78 in 2012–13, which consisted of 4 GHB detections and 74 GBL detections. The total
number of ketamine detections increased 237.3 per cent this reporting period, from 59 in
2011–12 to 199 in 2012–13 (see Figure 58).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
114
FIGURE 58: Number of anaesthetic detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
300
250
Number
200
150
100
50
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
IMPORTATION METHODS
The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of anaesthetic border
detections, accounting for 90.2 per cent of detections in 2012–13 (see Figure 59).
FIGURE 59: Number of anaesthetic detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection
Service)
Air cargo (8.7%)
Air passenger/crew (1.1%)
Parcel post (90.2%)
In 2012–13, 98.5 per cent of the number of ketamine detections at the Australian border
occurred in the postal stream. Of these, 99.4 per cent weighed less than 100 grams (see
Figure 60).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
115
FIGURE 60: Number of ketamine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections,
by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air passenger/crew (1.5%)
Parcel post (98.5%)
In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 68.9 per cent of the number of border detections of
GHB and GBL, followed by air cargo with 31.1 per cent (see Figure 61).
FIGURE 61: Number of GHB and GBL detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection
Service)
Air cargo (31.1%)
Parcel post (68.9%)
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
116
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 21 countries were identified as embarkation points for anaesthetics
detected at the Australian border, compared with 17 countries in 2011–12. By number, the
primary embarkation point was the UK, which accounted for 32.1 per cent of the number of
anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. Other prominent embarkation
points by number this reporting period were the Netherlands, Poland, Canada, Germany,
Thailand, India, Lithuania, Belgium and Ireland.
By number, Poland was the primary embarkation point for GHB and GBL with 21 detections,
which accounted for 26.9 per cent of the number of detections. Other major embarkation
points identified for GHB and GBL detections this reporting period by number were Thailand,
the UK, China, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Singapore and Germany.
In 2012–13, a total of 18 countries were identified as embarkation points for ketamine
detected at the Australian border, compared with 13 countries in 2011–12. By number, the
UK was the primary embarkation point, accounting for 39.2 per cent of ketamine detections
at the Australian border in 2012–13. Other major embarkation points by number for ketamine
detections this reporting period included the Netherlands, Canada, Germany, India, Belgium,
Ireland, Spain, Taiwan and the US.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 1.4 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or
older reported using ketamine at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 0.8 per cent
reported using GHB at least once in their lifetime. The proportion of the population aged
14 years or older reporting recent use of ketamine and GHB was 0.2 per cent and
0.1 per cent respectively (AIHW 2011).
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting
ketamine use in their lifetime decreased, from 42 per cent in 2011 to 39 per cent in 2012.
The proportion of respondents reporting recent ketamine use decreased, from 16 per cent
in 2011 to 14 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of
respondents reporting recent ketamine use has increased to 19 per cent
(NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents reporting GHB use in their lifetime
decreased from 22 per cent in 2011 to 21 per cent in 2012. In 2012, reported recent GHB
use remained low at 7 per cent. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of
respondents reporting recent GHB use has decreased to 6 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich
& Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
PRICE
Law enforcement price data for ketamine is limited. Consistent with prices reported in
2011–12, the price for a gram of ketamine in New South Wales ranged between $50 and
$180 in 2012–13 and between $150 and $200 in Queensland. The price of a single
ketamine tablet this reporting period ranged between $25 and $50 in Queensland, with
$50 per tablet reported in the Northern Territory. Nationally, the price for 1–1.5 millilitres of
GHB/GBL ranged between $3 and $25 in 2012–13, with the price per litre ranging between
$2 000 and $5 000.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
117
PURITY
According to a study of regular ecstasy users, the perceived purity of ketamine is reported as
high. In 2012, 6 per cent of respondents were able to comment on the perceived purity of
ketamine, of which 60 per cent reported the purity of ketamine as high, compared with
63 per cent in 2011 (Sindicich & Burns 2013).14
AVAILABILITY
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 1.1 per cent of the population had been offered or given the
opportunity to use ketamine and 1.0 per cent GHB in the 12 months preceding interview.
These figures are consistent with those reported in the 2007 survey (AIHW 2011).
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, 6 per cent of respondents were able to
comment on the availability of ketamine. Of these, 45 per cent reported ketamine as easy to
very easy to obtain, a decrease from 52 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study
indicate this has increased to 69 per cent, however, the number of respondents able to
comment remains low and findings should be interpreted with caution. In the same 2012
study, 27 respondents were able to comment on the availability of GHB. Of these,
59 per cent reported GHB as easy to very easy to obtain, an increase from 47 per cent in
2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting the
availability of GHB as easy to very easy to obtain increased to 75 per cent (NDARC 2013;
Sindicich & Burns 2013).
14
As very small numbers (n=27) of the national sample commented on characteristics of the ketamine market,
results should be interpreted with caution.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
118
PHARMACEUTICALS
MAIN FORMS
Produced for legitimate medical use, many pharmaceutical drugs are diverted to the illicit
market. The illicit pharmaceutical market encompasses the use of prescription
pharmaceuticals that is inconsistent with their intended use or directions—including, but not
limited to intentional misuse and overuse (also referred to as non-medical use)—and
diversion from the legitimate market. Opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines are the most
commonly misused pharmaceuticals in Australia (PHAA 2010; Sweeney 2007).
Pharmaceuticals are obtained for illicit personal use through various methods including:
 family and friends with legitimate access

stolen, altered or forged prescriptions

feigning symptoms

theft from surgeries or pharmacies

doctor-shopping15

threatening general practitioners

purchases over the internet

poor prescription practices, such as prescribing larger than required quantities

health practitioners self-prescribing or otherwise misappropriating through their work
(ADF 2013e; DCPC 2007).
The Australian Government subsidises numerous pharmaceuticals through the
Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS).16 With the increased availability of pharmaceuticals
comes an increase in the potential for their misuse. The use of pharmaceutical drugs for
non-medical purposes can have potentially dangerous effects and may lead to addiction,
poisoning, disease and death (PHAA 2010).
Dependence on the non-medical use of pharmaceuticals may occur following medical
treatment for a physical or emotional trauma, or as a consequence of self-medication. Other
reasons for the non-medical use of pharmaceuticals include being for the treatment of an
underlying drug dependency problem, dealing with withdrawal symptoms, illicit drug
substitution and/or for the enhancement of other drugs (AIC 2009).
This section will focus on the pharmaceutical drugs most commonly used for non-medical
purposes in Australia: benzodiazepines and opioids.
‘Doctor-shopping’ refers to presenting to numerous doctors for the purpose of obtaining multiple prescriptions to
deal with non-existent or exaggerated symptoms.
16 The PBS is a federally funded government program which subsidises the cost of a broad range of medicines
for most medical conditions and was established to ensure Australians have affordable access to pharmaceutical
medicines.
15
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
119
BENZODIAZEPINES
Benzodiazepines slow the activity of the central nervous system and the messages sent and
received by the brain. Most commonly prescribed to relieve insomnia, anxiety and panic
attacks, the desired effects of benzodiazepine use include relaxation, calmness and relief
from anxiety. The use of benzodiazepines—even when its use is consistent with the
intended directions at therapeutic level—may cause a range of harms to the user, such as
cognitive impairment, dependence and depression. Benzodiazepines may be misused to
'come down' from the effects of stimulants, such as amphetamines or cocaine, to enhance
the effects of other depressant drugs, or as a substitute for drugs of choice when they are
unavailable (ADF 2013f; Nielsen & Thompson 2008).
Benzodiazepines are among the most prescribed drugs in Australia. The most common
forms of benzodiazepines are tablets and capsules, which are stamped with their proprietary
name. Benzodiazepines can also be injected, which increases injection-related harms and
mortality (Nielsen & Thompson 2008; PBAC 2007).
Use of low to moderate doses of benzodiazepines may lead to confusion, impaired motor
coordination, loss of appetite and nausea. Higher doses may result in impaired judgement,
difficulty in thinking clearly, memory loss, mood swings and aggressive behaviour. Shortterm effects of use may include drowsiness, memory loss and confusion. Long-term effects
of benzodiazepine use may include developing a tolerance to the drug, vomiting, panic
attacks and paranoia during withdrawal from dependent use. The combined effects of
benzodiazepines and other depressant drugs, such as alcohol or heroin, increase the risk of
overdose and fatalities (ADF 2013f; AIC 2009; Bradvik et al. 2007; DCPC 2007;
Partanen et al. 2009).
The main forms of benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals are listed in Table 31.
TABLE 31: Main forms of commonly used benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceutical
type
Trade name
User names
Alprazolam
Zanax, Alprazolam, Tafil, Farmapram, Asolan,
Traxil, Niravam
Zanies, Zans, Blues, Quad Bars, Totem Poles,
Z Bars
Bromazepam
Lexotan
Clonazepam
Rivotril
Diazepam
Valium, Ducene, Antenex, Propam
Flunitrazepam
Rohypnol, Hypnodorm
Rohies, Roofies
Nitrazepam
Mogadon, Alodorm, Dormican, Nitepam
Moggies
Oxazepam
Serepax, Murelax, Alepam, Benzotran
Sarahs
Temazepam
Normison, Temaze, Euhypnos
Footballs, Normies
OPIOIDS
The term ‘opioids’ describes a class of drugs derived from the opium poppy and includes
synthetic substances with similar pain relieving properties. Opioid pharmaceuticals are
commonly prescribed for pain management and the treatment of heroin and other opioid
addiction.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
120
The most common opioids used to treat pain include codeine, morphine and oxycodone. The
misuse of opioids may result in tolerance and dependence17 and instances of psychiatric
conditions. Indicators of dependence include a strong desire to take the substance, limited
control over its use and the need to increase dosage quantities to achieve the desired effect.
Opioid withdrawal symptoms may include joint and muscle pain, nausea and vomiting,
abdominal cramps and irritability (Degenhardt 2013; SA Health 2011).
Available in tablet, capsule and liquid form, side effects of opioid use include drowsiness,
nausea and depressed respiration. The injection of opioids may be linked to the transmission
of blood-borne viruses, such as hepatitis B and C and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
and other injection-related infections, such as collapsed veins and abscesses. Opioid
overdose is more likely to occur when it is combined with other central nervous system
depressants, when the method of administration is injection, or if the user is experiencing a
change in tolerance levels. Methadone and buprenorphine are the two main pharmaceuticals
used in the treatment of opioid dependence (ADF 2011; ADF 2013e).
Common opioid pharmaceuticals are listed in Table 32.
TABLE 32: Main forms and effects of commonly used opioid pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceutical
type
Trade name
User names
Comments
Morphine
MS Contin, Anamorph,
Kapanol, Morphalgin
M, monkey, morph, Miss
Emma, dreamer, hard
stuff, greys
Main component of opium; powerful
narcotic analgesic
Codeine
Panadine Forte, Codral Forte,
Dymadon Forte, Codalgin
Forte, Mersyndol Forte
An extract of opium which is not as strong
as morphine
Oxycodone
Oxycontin, Endone, Wxynorm, Oxy, oxies, O.Cs,
Percocet, Roxidcodone, Tylox, oxycottons, oxy 80s,
Percodan
hillbilly heroin, roxies,
percs
A semi-synthetic opioid analgesic similar
to morphine
Fentanyl
Durogesic, Actiq (lozenge),
Fenpatch, Denpax
An opioid analgesic more potent than
morphine, with a rapid onset and short
duration
Pethidine
Peth
Synthetic narcotic analgesic, similar to
morphine but shorter lasting
Methadone
(or physeptone when
in tablet form)
Meth, Done, Metho
Synthetic narcotic analgesic used in the
treatment of opioid dependence;
predominantly provided in syrup form to
patients
Beup, mud
Used to treat withdrawal from heroin and
employed in maintenance treatment to
block the effects of other opioids
Buprenorphine
Subutex, Temgesic
17
Drug dependence is defined by the International Classification of Diseases 10th Revision (ICD-10) as the
presence of three or more indicators of dependence for at least a month within the previous year (Degenhardt et
al. 2013).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
121
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
All regions in the world continue to report high levels of the non-medical use of tranquillisers,
sedatives and non-prescription pharmaceutical opioids. Poly drug users may use single-use
tranquillisers, such as benzodiazepines, to enhance the effects of heroin. According to the
UNODC, the non-medical use of codeine-containing cough medicines and suppressants
continues unabated (UNODC 2013c).
According to US reporting, the non-medical use of prescription drugs is increasing at a
greater rate than that of other illicit drugs (Clinton Foundation 2013). The National Drug
Intelligence Centre assesses that the non-medical use of controlled prescription and overthe-counter pharmaceutical drugs ranks second only to that of cannabis. Prescription drugs
commonly used for non-medical purposes include opioid pain relievers, stimulants for
treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and medication for treating anxiety disorders.
Across all age groups (14 years and over) within the US, the number of deaths associated
with prescription painkillers exceeds that of all other illicit drugs (NIDA 2013).
According to the International Narcotic Control Board, Central American countries have
reported the non-medical use of pharmaceutical preparations that contain stimulants, as well
as of prescription stimulants. East and South-East Asian countries have also reported the
trafficking in and non-medical use of prescription drugs and over-the-counter pharmaceutical
preparations containing internationally controlled substances of concern. South Africa has
reported high levels of non-medical use of prescription drugs (mainly benzodiazepines,
analgesics, codeine preparations and sedative-hypnotics) (INCB 2013).
The 2011 European School Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs survey found that the
lifetime prevalence of non-prescription use of tranquillizers or sedatives among students
remained relatively stable between 1995 and 2011, at about 7 to 8 per cent (INCB 2013).
Licensed internet pharmacies provide accessible, convenient and private services to
consumers. However, there are also illegal internet pharmacies that typically sell a variety of
medications, which may pose health and safety risks to the user. These include access to
unapproved drugs, legal prescription drugs dispensed without a valid prescription, products
that are marketed with fraudulent health claims, or counterfeit pharmaceuticals.
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
Prescription pharmaceuticals are primarily imported by individuals without criminal intent.
Pharmaceuticals continue to be purchased over the internet due to the anonymity afforded to
purchasers without a prescription and the lower cost. Pharmaceutical border detections in
2012–13 include benzodiazepines and opioids.
While the number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border decreased by
13.9 per cent this reporting period, from 1 337 in 2011–12 to 1 151 in 2012–13, it is the third
highest number on record. The majority of these were benzodiazepines. The number of
benzodiazepine detections decreased this reporting period, from 1 298 in 2011–12 to
1 056 in 2012–13. The total number of pharmaceutical opioid detections doubled this
reporting period, increasing from 39 in 2011–12 to 79 in 2012–13. Oxycodone was the
primary pharmaceutical opioid detected at the Australian border in 2012–13, accounting for
60.7 per cent of the total number of detections. Other pharmaceutical opioids detected this
reporting period were morphine, buprenorphine and methadone (see Figure 62).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
122
FIGURE 62: Number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
1600
1400
Number
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
IMPORTATION METHODS
The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of pharmaceutical
detections. In 2012–13, the postal stream accounted for 57.1 per cent of the number
pharmaceutical detections, followed by air passenger/crew at 36.3 per cent (see Figure 63).
FIGURE 63: Number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection
Service)
Air cargo (3.7%)
Air passenger/crew (36.3%)
Parcel post (57.1%)
Sea cargo (2.9%)
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
123
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 60 countries were identified as embarkation points for pharmaceuticals
detected at the Australian border, compared with 55 countries in 2011–12. Thailand was the
prominent embarkation point, accounting for 19.5 per cent of the number of pharmaceutical
detections in 2012–13. Other major embarkation points this reporting period by number were
India, Singapore, Malaysia, the UK, Romania, South Africa, Indonesia, the US and Pakistan.
In 2012–13, a total of 58 countries were identified as embarkation points for
benzodiazepines detected at the Australian border. Thailand was the prominent embarkation
point, accounting for 20.2 per cent of the number of benzodiazepine detections in 2012–13.
Pakistan was the prominent embarkation point by number for opioid detections at the
Australian border this reporting period, accounting for 13.9 per cent of detections in
2012–13.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 4.2 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or
older reported recent non-medical18 use of any pharmaceuticals, the first increase reported
since 199819 (AIHW 2011). According to the ANSPS, pharmaceutical opioids (including
morphine and oxycodone) were the third most commonly reported class of drug last injected
nationally over the period 2008 to 2012. The prevalence of PIEDs injection increased in
New South Wales, from 2 per cent in 2008 to 12 per cent in 2012, and in Queensland, from
1 per cent in 2008 to 11 per cent in 2012, and was stable at 2 per cent or less in all other
jurisdictions. Consistent with previous years, pharmaceutical opioids were the drug most
commonly injected in the Northern Territory (70 per cent) and Tasmania (40 per cent) in
2012. In the same study, methadone was reported as the last drug injected by less than
10 per cent of the ANSPS respondents over the period 2008 to 2012, with a decline in
prevalence observed over this period (Iversen 2013).
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents
reporting recent use of any of benzodiazepine decreased, from 69 per cent in 2011 to
64 per cent 2012, with 62 per cent of respondents reporting swallowing as the main route of
administration. In the same study, 50 per cent of respondents reported recent use of any
form of illicit benzodiazepine.20 The proportion of respondents reporting recent illicit
morphine use decreased, from 39 per cent in 2011 to 38 per cent in 2012 and remained the
most commonly injected pharmaceutical opioid (NDARC 2013).
The same 2012 study showed variation between states and territories, with the
Northern Territory and Tasmania reporting the highest illicit use of morphine—locations
where heroin is traditionally reported as being difficult to obtain. In 2012, the proportion of
respondents reporting recent illicit use of oxycodone increased, from 32 per cent in 2011 to
35 per cent in 2012. Figure 64 shows the reported recent use of various pharmaceutical
drugs in 2012 by a regular injecting drug user population (Stafford & Burns 2013).
The NDSHS relates use for non-medical purposes to ‘ways that induced or enhanced a drug experience,
enhanced performance or were for cosmetic purposes’.
19 According to the NDSHS, pharmaceuticals include: pain-killers/analgesics, tranquillisers, steroids, methadone
or buprenorphine and/or other opioids.
20 Refers to/includes sublingual administration of buprenorphine (trade name Subutex) and buprenorphinenaloxone (trade name Suboxone).
18
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
124
FIGURE 64: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent use of illicit
pharmaceuticals, by type of pharmaceuticals, 2012 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
100
90
Recent use (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Pharm. stimulants
Oxycodone
Morphine
Methadone
Buprenorphine
Benzodiazepines
0
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting the
recent illicit use of benzodiazepines decreased, from 34 per cent in 2011 to 26 per cent. In
the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting the recent illicit use of opiates also
decreased, from 14 per cent in 2011 to 9 per cent in 2012. Figure 65 shows the recent
reported illicit use of various pharmaceuticals in 2012 by a regular ecstasy drug user
population (Sindicich & Burns 2013).
FIGURE 65: Proportion of a regular ecstasy drug user population reporting recent use of illicit
pharmaceuticals, by type of pharmaceutical, 2012 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
100
90
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Pharm. stimulants
Other opiates
Methadone
Buprenorphine
0
Benzodiazepines
Recent use (%)
80
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
125
Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey
and voluntary urinalysis. The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months
preceding interview. In contrast to other illicit drugs, the proportion of detainees testing
positive for opiates or benzodiazepines exceeds that for self reported use.
In 2012–13, the proportion of detainees testing positive21 for benzodiazepine use decreased,
from 22.6 per cent in 2011–12 to 20.0 per cent in 2012–13, as did the self-reported use of
benzodiazepines, which decreased, from 13.1 per cent in 2011–12 to 12.2 per cent in
2012–13 (see Figure 66).
FIGURE 66: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for benzodiazepines compared with self-reported
use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
Urinalysis
Self reporting
25
Proportion (%)
20
15
10
5
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012.
b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflects data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
The proportion of detainees testing positive22 for opiate use decreased this reporting period,
from 15.0 per cent in 2011–12 to 14.0 per cent in 2012–13. The self-reported use of
methadone also decreased, from 9.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 7.8 per cent in 2012–13 (see
Figure 67).23
21
Benzodiazepines and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 14 days after administration
(Makkai 2000).
22 Opiates and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 3 days after administration (Makkai
2000).
23 The self-report DUMA survey does not differentiate between use of opiates and methadone, with the
self-report question includes use of ‘illegal morphine/street/methadone/homebake or other illegal opiates’
(AIC 2012–13).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
126
FIGURE 67: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for opiates compared with self-reported use of
methadone, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
Urinalysis
Self reporting
20
18
Proportion (%)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012.
b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
PRICE
Law enforcement price data for pharmaceuticals obtained for non-medical use is limited. In
2012–13, the price for a 60 milligram tablet of Oxycontin was $60.
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the median price for 40 milligrams of
oxycodone was $30, an increase from $22.50 in 2011 and ranged between $20 in New
South Wales and $40 in Tasmania (Stafford & Burns 2013).24
AVAILABILITY
According to a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to
comment on the availability of illicit oxycodone, 68 per cent reported it as easy or very easy
to obtain, compared with 61 per cent in 2011. The proportion of respondents reporting illicit
morphine as easy or very easy to obtain in 2012 remained stable at 72 per cent
(Stafford & Burns 2012; Stafford & Burns 2013).
SEIZURES
Following decreases in the number of national other opioid seizures in 2010–11 and
2011–12, the number of seizures increased 24.1 per cent this reporting period, from 83 in
2011–12 to 103 in 2012–13.
Following a spike in the weight of national other opioid seizures in 2010–11, the weight of
national other opioid seizures has continued to decrease, from 26.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to
6.1 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure 68).
24
South Australia, Queensland, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory had small numbers
reporting (n<10).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
127
FIGURE 68: National other opioid seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
250
Weight
350
Number
300
250
150
200
150
100
Number
Weight (kg)
200
100
50
50
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
Despite reporting a decrease in the number and weight of other opioid seizures in 2012–13,
New South Wales continues to account for the majority of national other opioid seizures,
accounting for 46.6 per cent of the number and 62.2 per cent of the weight of seizures this
reporting period. In 2012–13, Tasmania reported the greatest percentage increase in the
number of other opioid seizures, while Queensland reported the greatest percentage
increase in weight (see Table 33).
TABLE 33: Number, weight and percentage change of national other opioid seizures, 2011–12 and
2012–13
Number
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
42
10
6
6
7
1
0
11
83
Weight (grams)
2012–13
48
13
16
0
4
17
0
5
103
% change
2011–12
14.3
30.0
166.7
-100.0
-42.9
1 600.0
0
-54.5
24.1
2012–13
18 004
7 809
5
772
19
0
0
8
26 617
3 823
1 672
385
0
8
244
0
15
6 147
% change
-78.8
-78.6
7 600.0
-100.0
-57.9
–
0
87.5
-76.9
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
128
DRUG
ANALOGUES
SUBSTANCES (DANPS)
AND
NEW
PSYCHOACTIVE
MAIN FORMS
Drug analogues and new25 psychoactive substances (DANPS), is an umbrella term referring
to substances that mimic, or are intended to mimic, the effects of illegal drugs and which are
marketed as alternatives to controlled drugs. DANPS have been present in Australia and
overseas since at least the mid-2000s and are often referred to as novel substances, novel
psychotropic substances, emerging psychoactive substances, analogues, mimetics, legal
highs, new synthetics, herbal highs or designer drugs (UNODC 2011b; UNODC 2013b).
A wide range of DANPS are available to users. According to the UNODC, the number of
potential synthetic drug derivatives is technically unlimited. Three United Nations
Conventions provide a framework for controlling the production, trade and possession of
over 240 psychoactive substances, with the number of DANPS exceeding that of other illicit
drugs regulated by these conventions or treaties. These so-called ‘legal highs’26 or mimetics
have become the drug of choice for some illicit drug users (EMCDDA 2013b; Lancet 2013;
UNODC 2013b).
The marketing of DANPS as legal alternatives to controlled substances—including
methylamphetamine, MDMA and cannabis—may be interpreted by prospective users as
being safe to consume or less harmful than illicit drugs. As many of these substances are
novel, there is limited research or knowledge about the short or long-term health
consequences of DANPS use, the risk of dependence, possible effects of use in combination
with other drugs, or potential fatal dosage levels. Some identified short-term effects
associated with DANPS use include dilated pupils, hypertension, hyperventilation, paranoia,
agitation, hyperthermia, tremors and seizures (Arnold 2013; UNODC 2013a).
Two groups of DANPS that receive considerable public attention are synthetic cannabinoids
and cathinones, in particular 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC). This section will cover these
two groups in more detail.
SYNTHETIC CANNABINOIDS
Many synthetic cannabinoids27 were synthesised with the aim of using them in laboratory
research as potential treatments for conditions such as nausea and glaucoma, or for their
anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. In 2012, the European Union’s Early Warning
System (EWS) was notified of 73 new psychoactive substances, of which 30 were synthetic
cannabinoids. Synthetic cannabinoids mimic the effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
(THC), the main psychoactive substance in cannabis. While some synthetic cannabinoids
share a chemical structure similar to THC, the vast majority identified to date have no
structural relationship to THC. With the exception of a small number of substances which
have very limited legitimate uses, the vast majority of identified substances have no
legitimate industrial, scientific or medicinal application (ADF 2013h; Bretteville-Jensen et al.
2013; EMCDDA 2013c; TGA 2011).
Use of the term ‘new’ does not necessarily refer to a new invention—as many DANPS may have been
synthesised years or decades ago—rather that they have recently emerged on the market.
26 Use of the term ’legal high’ may not reflect the true legal status of these substances under Australian legislation.
27 Scientifically, these are known as cannabimimetics due to the way the compounds mimic cannabis like
behaviour. The commonly used term ‘synthetic cannabinoids’ has been used to avoid confusion and remain
consistent with existing public terminology.
25
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
129
Synthetic cannabinoids are typically dissolved in a solvent and sprayed onto dried plant
material for use. As a consequence of the way in which synthetic cannabinoids are
produced, there may be great variation both within and between the finished products.
Synthetic cannabinoids are primarily smoked (via a pipe, in a cigarette or joint or blunt, or by
using a hookah or water pipe or bong). Administration via vaporisation, in addition to oral
and rectal ingestion has also been reported. Synthetic cannabinoids are sold on the internet
or in various specialised shops and typically contain 1–3 grams of dried plant matter in a foil
sachet, often labelled as a smoking mixture, herbal blend or incense. Synthetic cannabinoids
are marketed under various brand names, which include Kronic, Spice, K2 and Northern
Lights. Although a number of plant-based ingredients may be listed on the packaging,
scientific testing has found that many of these are not actually present (ADF 2013g;
Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013; NCPIC 2013; NSW Health 2011).
Users of synthetic cannabinoids may experience elevated mood, relaxation and altered
perceptions. Short-term effects of synthetic cannabinoid use may include fatigue,
headaches, disorientation, hallucinations, tachycardia, hypertension, agitation, panic attacks,
anxiety and depression. Long-term effects use may include an increased risk of heart attack
(as a consequence of high blood pressure and reduced blood supply to the heart). Synthetic
cannabinoids also have carcinogenic potential, which may put users at risk of developing
chronic bronchitis and lung cancer, and may precipitate the development of psychosis in
patients with a history of mental illness. According to UNODC reporting, several cases of
severe toxicity and deaths have been associated with synthetic cannabinoid use
(ADF 2013h; Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013; TGA 2011; UNODC 2013a).
Synthetic cannabinoids form part of the illicit drug market in Australia. Since 2011, some
Australian states and territories have introduced new regulations to ban synthetic
cannabinoids. From 1 May 2012, nine groups of synthetic cannabinoids were included within
Schedule 9 (Prohibited Substance) in the Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines
and Poisons (SUSMP) (Poison Standard) (ADF 2013h, AG 2012).28 On 29 May 2013, the
Commonwealth prescribed eight synthetic cannabinoids as border controlled drugs under
the Criminal Code Act 1995.29 The list of border controlled drugs is found in the Criminal
Code Regulations 2002.
4-MMC (4-METHYLMETHCATHINONE)
Developed as an antidepressant, 4-MMC was first synthesised in 1929, however its strong
addictive potential stopped it from being used for medical purposes. An illicit drug market for
4-MMC was established in the last decade after it was ‘rediscovered’ in 2003
(Bretteville-Jensen 2013; UNODC 2013a).
4-MMC, also known as mephedrone, is an analogue designed to mimic cathinone, which is a
controlled drug. 4-MMC is a central nervous system stimulant, which increases the
synaptic30 concentrations of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin, and
norepinephrine.31 Common street names for 4-MMC include ‘meph’, ‘meow’, ‘miaow-miaow’,
‘m-cat’, ‘drone’, ‘bubbles’ or ‘kitty cat’. 4-MMC is commonly marketed or mislabelled as bath
salts, plant food or hoover freshener (ADF 2013i; Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013;
Sindicich & Burns 2013; Wood & Dargan 2012).
28
See the Initiatives chapter for further information.
Many synthetic cannabinoids (including the eight added to the border controlled drug list) also appear on the
Customs (Prohibited Import) Regulations 1956, and are therefore subject to a range of licensing and permit
requirements for import/export of these substances.
30 A synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another
cell (neural or otherwise).
31 Both a hormone and a neurotransmitter.
29
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
130
Powder is the most common form of 4-MMC. It is available in tablet or capsule form. It can
be snorted, swallowed, or dissolved for oral/rectal use or intramuscular/intravenous injection.
The most common route of administration of 4-MMC is snorting (Sindicich & Burns 2013).
Users report that 4-MMC produces a similar experience to amphetamines, MDMA or
cocaine. Reported short term effects of 4-MMC use include dilated pupils, tremors or
convulsions, insomnia, anxiety, paranoia, hypertension and breathing difficulties. Long-term
effects of use may lead to memory deterioration, hallucinations, delusions, erratic behaviour,
anxiety, paranoia and depression (Brunt et al. 2011; UNODC 2013a; Winstock et al. 2010).
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
DANPS are a global phenomenon, with all regions of the world virtually reporting
simultaneous activity related to this market. Over the past few years, there has been
unprecedented growth in the number, type and availability of DANPS, however reliable data
on the scope and nature of this market is limited to some extent. Between 2005 and 2011,
the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) EWS reported
one new substance per week, with two-thirds of all reported DANPS either synthetic
cannabinoids or synthetic cathinones (EMCDDA 2013b; Forensic Science Review 2013).
Studies report numerous sales occur via the internet, with suppliers using the internet to
promote their products. Both users and sellers value the impersonal and implied low-risk
transaction method stemming from online purchases. The low price of synthetic
cannabinoids and cathinones—compared to some other illicit drugs—and the ease of
transaction, for both users and sellers, creates potential for market expansion
(Forensic Science Review 2013).
In Europe, clandestine laboratories producing DANPS sell direct to users via the internet, or
through legitimate stores. In order to avoid detection by law enforcement or other regulatory
bodies, suppliers may also deceptively label these substances as not for human
consumption and market the substances in a variety of packaging, purporting them to be
bath salts, plant food, research chemicals or fertiliser (Forensic Science Review 2013).
According to the International Narcotics Control Board, many DANPS suppliers are based in
China or India, with domestic manufacture also reported by countries in Europe, the
Americas and other parts of Asia (INCB 2013). The UNODC reported the number of
synthetic cathinones seizures remained stable in 2012 (UNODC 2013b). In June 2013, the
US DEA announced a 1 500 kilogram seizure of synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones
manufactured in India and China, intended for the US and Australian markets (Knight 2013).
The United Arab Emirates seized 126 parcel consignments, totalling 23.5 kilograms of
synthetic cannabinoids (Spice) over an eight month period in 2012 (UNODC 2013c). In
January 2013, Egypt reported increasing seizures of synthetic cannabinoids (Voodoo)
originating in Europe and trafficked through Libya (UNODC 2013c).
There is no standard national or international approach to addressing the issue of DANPS.
Many countries have adopted broad legislative approaches for controlling DANPS through
the use of analogue and generic terms, temporary and emergency procedures and
alternative non-drug specific legislation, such as consumer protection legislation. The US
has enacted laws to target analogue compounds. Although not making synthetic drugs
illegal, Sweden can seize them under the Destruction Act and the UK uses Temporary Drug
Class Orders to ban new substances—usually effective within a month—while formal
legislative change is enacted (Policing and Practice Journal 2013).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
131
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
132
In 2013, New Zealand introduced the Psychoactive Substances Act 2013, making it illegal to
import, manufacture, sell or supply psychoactive substances without a licence. The burden
of proof is now placed on the manufacturers and distributors to prove that their products
present low risk for human use before they can be granted a licence (NZG 2013).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SEIZURES
DANPS comprise synthetic cannabinoids, substituted cathinones, analogues of
amphetamine type-stimulants, as well as novel and obscure research chemicals. The main
characteristic of these drugs is the diversity and large number of substances involved.
DANPS are sourced from within large groups of chemical compounds, which complicate
their regulation and may enable vendors to evade regulatory mechanisms by adjusting the
chemical composition of their products. DANPS are increasingly seized at the Australian
border, mainly in air cargo parcels and the international mail stream.
Border regulation of DANPS is complex due to many new and emerging substances not
being covered under current legislation. Their presumptive identification also poses
challenges as current trace detection tools may not currently be calibrated to detect the
thousands of drugs which potentially fall under this category. Shipments encountered at the
Australian border are either personal use quantities that are purchased online and delivered
by mail, or larger shipments intended for resale. Shipments intended for resale comprise
either a large number of retail doses, mostly of synthetic cannabinoids, packaged as
ready-to-use smoking mixtures, or bulk active agents in kilogram quantities, mainly from
China. DANPS have low active dose thresholds such as 3–6 mg for synthetic cannabinoids,
and 0.1–0.4 mg for the exceptionally dangerous NBOMe group compounds, which have
been associated with fatalities in Australia and other countries. DANPS, which are sold in
Australia at low prices per dose, have the potential to generate criminal profits in excess of
those obtained from trafficking more established illicit drugs, such as heroin and cocaine,
although at present the DANPS market does not compare in size with more traditional illicit
drug markets.
Although the breadth of new substances appearing on the market is very large, and some
appear only sporadically, the Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence
(FDI) team, in consultation with the National Measurement Institute (NMI), has identified the
following categories of DANPS:
 amphetamine-type substances

cathinone-type substances

synthetic cannabinoids

tryptamine-type substances

others.
Among the many different compounds detected and reported since 2006–07, some have
been more common than others in terms of the weight of material seized and/or the overall
number of seizures. These have included 4-MMC, N,N-dimethylamphetamine (DMA),
1-benzylpiperazine (BZP) and 3-trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
133
Over the reporting periods, analysis of DANPS has included amphetamine-type substances,
novel cathinone-type substances, synthetic cannabinoids, novel tryptamine-type substances,
novel 2C-type substances and novel piperazine-type substances. Analysis of border
seizures containing DANPS indicates that while the number of seizures decreased in
2012–13, the weight of seizures containing DANPS more than doubled (see Figure 69).32
FIGURE 69: Number and weight of seizures selected for further analysis and found to contain novel
substances and drug analogues, 2006–07 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug
Intelligence)
80
150
60
100
40
50
20
0
0
2012–13
200
2011–12
100
2010–11
250
2009–10
120
2008–09
300
2007–08
140
Number
Number
350
2006–07
Weight (kg)
Weight
Since 2008–09, novel cathinone-type substances have accounted for the highest proportion
of the number of seizures in this subset. In 2012–13, novel cathinone-type substances
accounted for 44.6 per cent of analysed seizures containing novel substances, followed by
novel amphetamine-type substances (17.9 per cent), novel 2C-type substances
(16.1 per cent), novel piperazine-type substances (10.7 per cent), synthetic cannabinoids
(8.9 per cent) and novel tryptamine-type substances (1.8 per cent).
Following a spike in the weight of DANPS seized in 2010–1133 and the notable decrease in
the weight of DANPS seized in 2011–12, the weight of analysed seizures increased by
139.3 per cent in 2012–13. Novel piperazine-type substances accounted for 41.8 per cent of
the weight of novel substance seizures, followed by novel cathinone-type substances
(35.1 per cent), novel amphetamine-type substances (19.6 per cent), synthetic cannabinoids
(3.4 per cent) and novel tryptamine-type substances (<0.1 per cent).
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting
recent 4-MMC use decreased, from 14 per cent in 2011 to 5 per cent in 2012. Swallowing
(62 per cent), followed by snorting (48 per cent), were the most common methods of
administration, with minimal reporting of injecting. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate
32
The data in Figure 69 refers only to seizures made by the AFP, examined by AFP crime scene teams, sampled
and subsequently confirmed to contain a novel substance by the NMI. Seizure data does not represent all AFP
seizures of DANPS during these periods.
33 The spike in the weight of DANPS seized in 2010–11 was due to 3 large seizures containing novel
amphetamine-type substances, which accounted for approximately 82 per cent of the weight of novel substances
seized in that reporting period.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
134
the proportion of respondents reporting recent use has increased to 6 per cent
(NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of synthetic
cannabinoids increased, from 6 per cent in 2011 to 15 per cent of in 2012. Early findings
from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use has
increased to 16 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
PRICE
National law enforcement price data for DANPS, including 4-MMC and synthetic
cannabinoids is limited.
In 2012–13, the price of a tablet/capsule of 4-MMC in Tasmania the price was $30, with the
price in Queensland ranging between $20 and $50. Nationally, the price for 3 grams of
synthetic cannabinoids in 2012–13 ranged between $50 and $95.
DOMESTIC SEIZURES
Technical challenges exist for law enforcement agencies in identifying DANPS. Due to the
dynamic nature of this market, data systems have limited capacity to accurately record and
readily extract seizure and arrest data, with many of these drugs reported as ‘other drugs’.
As a result, monitoring and reporting on national trends of these drugs is limited.
Since 2007–08, jurisdictions have indicated an increase in the number and weight of DANPS
seized. Key categories of seized substances include amphetamine-type substances,
cathinone-type substances and synthetic cannabinoids.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
135
OTHER AND UNKNOWN NOT ELSEWHERE CLASSIFIED
(NEC) DRUGS
Data of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests and seizures capture drugs and
substances outside the other specific drug categories contained in the Illicit Drug Data
Report (IDDR). This category covers a range of substances including precursors,
anaesthetics, DANPS, pharmaceuticals and drugs not elsewhere classified. Substances in
this category are likely to change between reporting periods. Data limitations are further
discussed in the Statistics chapter.
Over the last decade, the number of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures
increased 425.0 per cent, from 1 367 in 2003–04 to 7 177 in 2012–13. By comparison, the
weight of seizures has fluctuated over the last decade, increasing 1 089.2 per cent, from
185 kilograms in 2003–04 to 2 200 kilograms in 2012–13.
This reporting period the number of other and unknown NEC drug seizures increased
32.9 per cent, from 5 399 in 2011–12 to 7 177 in 2012–13, while the weight of seizures
decreased 83.6 per cent, from 13 451.5 kilograms in 2011–12 to 2 200.0 kilograms in
2012–13. The significant decrease in the weight of related seizures between the 2011–12
and 2012–13 reporting periods is a direct consequence of a single 11–tonne seizure of
hypophosphorous acid in 2011–12, a reagent chemical used in the manufacture of
methylamphetamine (see Figure 70).
FIGURE 70: National ‘Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified’ drug seizures, by number and
weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Weight
8000
Number
7000
12000
6000
Weight (kg)
14000
10000
5000
8000
4000
6000
3000
4000
2000
2000
1000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
Number
16000
New South Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of national other and unknown NEC
drug seizures this reporting period, accounting for 43.5 per cent of the number and
29.8 per cent of the weight. Queensland, Western Australia and Northern Territory reported
notable increases in the weight of other and unknown NEC drug seizures this reporting
period, with their combined seizure weight accounting for 52.6 per cent of the weight of
national seizures in 2012–13 (see Table 34).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
136
TABLE 34: Number, weight and percentage change of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures,
2011–12 and 2012–13
Number
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
2011–12
Weight (grams)
2012–13
% change
2011–12
2012–13
3 122
32.4
12 687 524
655 050
461
663
43.8
338 274
371 678
9.9
1 192
1 258
5.5
135 277
486 917
259.9
2 358
Australian Capital Territory
% change
-94.8
21
32
52.4
15 532
13 926
-10.3
996
1 704
71.1
36 484
90 523
148.1
132
158
19.7
3 651
1 807
-50.5
209
211
1.0
233 264
578 715
148.1
30
29
-3.3
1 585
1 444
-8.9
Total
5 399
7 177
32.9
13 451 591
2 200 060
-83.6
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
b. Please note that kava seizures in the Northern Territory may constitute a significant proportion of the number and weight of
other and unknown NEC seizures within a given reporting period. As such, care should be taken when interpreting these
results.
Over the last decade, the number of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests has
increased 47.7 per cent, from 8 444 in 2003–04 to 12 469 in 2012–13, the highest number
reported in the last decade. Since 2003–04, consumer arrests have accounted for over
70 per cent of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests, accounting for 72.9 per cent of
arrests in this reporting period (see Figure 71).
FIGURE 71: Number of national ‘Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified’ drug arrests, 2003–04 to
2012–13
Total
Consumer
Provider
14000
12000
Number
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of national other and unknown
NEC drug arrests, accounting for 31.6 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. This reporting period
South Australia reported the highest percentage increase in other and unknown NEC drug
arrests (see Table 35).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
137
TABLE 35: Number and percentage change of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests,
2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
1 714
2 417
3 558
154
2 104
477
178
3
2012–13
1 706
3 182
3 945
801
2 439
345
51
0
% change
-0.5
31.7
10.9
420.1
15.9
-27.7
-71.3
-100.0
10 605
12 469
17.6
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
138
NATIONAL IMPACT
The other drugs category includes a wide range of drugs and substances. In 2012–13, there
was a record 10 356 detections of PIEDs at the Australian border. The number of
embarkation points identified for PIED detections increased 11.1 per cent this reporting
period, from 63 countries in 2011–12 to 70 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream
continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of detected PIEDs, with China
and Thailand the prominent embarkation points for the number of PIEDs detected at the
Australian border in 2012–13. While the weight of national steroid seizures decreased this
reporting period, it is the second highest weight reported in the last decade. In 2012–13, the
number of national steroid seizures and arrests increased and are the highest on record.
New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of both the number and
weight of national steroid seizures, while Queensland continues to account for the greatest
proportion of national steroid arrests. While consumer arrests continue to account for the
greatest proportion of national steroid arrests, in 2012–13, Tasmania and the Australian
Capital Territory reported more provider arrests than consumer arrests.
There was a record 509 detections of tryptamines at the Australian border in 2012–13, the
majority of which relate to LSD detections. The number of embarkation points identified for
tryptamines detections increased 137.5 per cent this reporting period, from 8 countries in
2011–12 to 19 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest
proportion of the number of tryptamine detections, with the Netherlands the prominent
embarkation point for tryptamine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. Nationally,
the weight of hallucinogen seizures decreased to 3.6 kilograms, the lowest weight reported
since 2008–09. Despite this decrease, the number of national hallucinogen seizures
continued to increase and is the highest reported in the last decade. New South Wales
continues to account for the greatest proportion of both the number and weight of national
hallucinogen seizures, with Queensland continuing to account for the greatest proportion of
national hallucinogen arrests. While consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest
proportion of national hallucinogen arrests, South Australia and Tasmania reported more
provider arrests than consumer arrests.
There was a record 277 detections of anaesthetics at the Australian border in 2012–13, the
majority of which relate to ketamine detections. The number of embarkation points identified
for anaesthetic detections at the Australian border increased 23.5 per cent, from
17 countries in 2011–12 to 21 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account
for the greatest proportion of the number of anaesthetic detections, with the UK the
prominent embarkation point by number for anaesthetic detections at the Australian border
in 2012–13.
While the number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border decreased in
2012–13, it is the third highest number reported in the last decade. The majority of
detections this reporting period were benzodiazepines. The number of embarkation points
identified for pharmaceuticals detected at the Australian border increased 9 per cent, from
55 countries in 2011–12 to 60 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account
for the greatest proportion of the number of pharmaceutical detections. Thailand was the
prominent embarkation point for the number of benzodiazepines detected at the Australian
border in 2012–13, with Pakistan the prominent embarkation point for the number of opioid
detections.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
139
The most prevalent DANPS available in the Australian illicit drug market in 2012–13 were
novel piperazine-type substances, novel cathinone-type substances, novel amphetaminetype substances and synthetic cannabinoids. While the number of analysed border seizures
containing DANPS in 2012–13 decreased 56.3 per cent, the weight of seizures more than
doubled. In this reporting period, novel cathinone-type substances accounted for the majority
of analysed border seizures by number, while novel piperazine-type substances accounted
the greatest proportion of the weight of seizures.
The number of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures continued to increase this
reporting period, with the 7 177 seizures in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last
decade. The weight of national seizures decreased considerably in 2012–13, a direct
consequence of the 11 tonne seizure of hypophosphorous acid in 2011–12. New South
Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of the number and weight of national other and
unknown NEC drug seizures this reporting period. Queensland continues to account for the
greatest proportion of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests, with consumer arrests
accounting for the greatest proportion of arrests.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
140
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