Cognition, Intelligence, and Creativity
Thinking is the mental manipulation of _______________________________________. Most
people use internal images (including kinesthetic images) for thinking.
A concept is a __________________________________________________. We learn concepts
from positive and negative instances and from rules. Prototype is often used to identify concepts.
Language translates events into symbols, which are combined ___________________________
___________________. True languages are productive. Studies suggest that, with training, primates are
capable of some language use.
The solution to a problem may be arrived at mechanically (_______________________ or by
rote). Solutions by understanding usually begin with ________________________________________
_____________________. Next, functional solutions are proposed. Problem solving is frequently aided
by
heuristics,
which
narrow
the
search
for
solutions.
When
understanding
leads
to
_______________________, insight has occurred. Insight can be blocked by fixations.
Creative solutions are ___________________________________. Creative thinking requires
divergent thought, characterized by ________________________________________. Tests of
creativity measure these qualities. Five stages often seen in __________________________________
___________________ are orientation, preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification. Intuitive
thinking often leads to errors. Wrong conclusions may be drawn when an answer seems
____________________________ of what we already believe is true. Clear thinking is usually aided by
______________________________________________. Major sources of thinking errors include rigid
mental sets, faulty logic, and oversimplifications.
Characteristics of a Creative Person
1. Expertise: the person has developed expertise in a specific area through years of
___________________________.
2. ______________________________: creative people have a mind that is open to
experience and are able to be in touch with their feelings and fantasies. They are also inherently
curious and inquisitive.
3. ______________________________: creative people are independent minded and value
this independence, especially in their area of expertise. The creative person can be a kind of
intellectual loner.
4. Intrinsic Motivation: creative people are intrinsically motivated and become excited
about their work. The reward in creativity is the creativity itself.
5. Perseverance:
creative
people
are
hard
workers
and
________________________________________________________ .
Intelligence is defined variously as an individual's ability to ______________________________
information and complex ideas, and an individual's ability to __________________________________,
to benefit from experience, and to think through and creatively solve problems. Intelligence refers to a
general capacity to _________________________________________________________________
with the environment. In practice, intelligence is operationally defined by creating tests. The first
practical individual intelligence test was assembled by Alfred Binet. A modern version is the StanfordBinet Intelligence Scale. A second major intelligence test is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.
Culture-fair and group intelligence tests are also available. Intelligence is expressed as an
______________________________ (IQ). The distribution of IQ scores approximates a normal curve.
Intelligence reflects the combined effects of __________________________________________.
People with IQs in the gifted or "genius" range tend to be superior in many respects. In addition,
many children are gifted or talented in other ways. The terms «mentally retarded» and «developmentally
disabled» apply to persons with an IQ ________________ or who lack various adaptive behaviors.
About 50 % of the cases of mental retardation are ______________; the remaining cases are of
______________________________ (many are thought to be familial).
Studies suggest that there is only a small positive correlation between IQ and ________________.
Work on artificial intelligence has focused on computer simulations and expert systems. Human
expertise is based on __________________________________________________________.
QUIZ
1. Solutions by understanding usually begin with discovery of the … properties of an answer. Next
comes proposal of a number of functional solutions.
2. When understanding leads to a rapid …, insight has occurred. Three elements of insight are selective
encoding, selective combination, and selective comparison.
3. It's Nature-Nurture Time ... Again!
That's right—and nowhere in the field of psychology has the nature-nurture issue fueled more
controversy. Researchers have discovered a disparity in the average IQ scores of different groups of
people. Even in the US, where equality is a goal if not a reality, we find a significant difference in the IQ
scores of different races. Offer a definitive answer why. That is your task. In the space below, provide as
many pros and cons as you can find for each side of the debate. Estimate the percentage of nature and
the percentage of nurture that come together to form IQ. Finally, list some factors that might assist you
in increasing your academic performance, or improving your success in life.
NATURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
NURTURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
My Vote (Nature or Nurture): ___________ Nature: _____ %. Nurture: _____ %
How can I increase my school performance, or improve my chances for success in life?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. The ability to produce original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problems is known
as … .
5. Which of the following is NOT identified as one of the four basic stages in the creative problemsolving process?
a) preparation
c) cognition
b) incubation
d) translation
BOOST YOUR CHILD'S TEST SCORES
Edwin Kiester, Jr., and Sally Valente Kieste
O NE MORNING last February, eight-year-old Alyssa Lübecker came down to breakfast complaining of an upset stomach. But the Algonquin, I11., third-grader was too worried to stay home. It was
test day, the first day of the new statewide Illinois Standards Achievement Tests (ISAT). Alyssa was
afraid that if she didn't take the test, she'd be held back a grade.
Aubrey Woodcock of St. Anthony, Idaho, an A student in the seventh grade, wants to be accepted
into her school's Gifted and Talented program. But to qualify she must rank in the 98th or 99th
percentile on one of the annual series of national Iowa Tests of Basic Skills. Each year "she gets so
nervous and flustered that she doesn't do her best, and falls just short," her mother says. "She even tells
me she'll never go to college if she has to take an admission test."
Worry over test taking is not a new phenomenon, but it has affected children at younger ages.
Standardize testing has increased enormously in the last 30 years. Forty-eight states require statewide
testing at one grade level or another. In 18 states high school students take tests to qualify for
graduation. An estimated 95 percent of America's school kids face some type of standardized exam
every year—culminating with the SAT I or the ACT Assessment. Almost three million high-schoolers
will take the SAT this year, one and a half million the ACT. Some take both these college-entrance
exams.
In the 1970s research at the University of Illinois found that many students were so stressed by
test anxiety that they performed well below their true abilities. Recent research by Thomas Haladyna at
Arizona State University West suggests things are no better today. Teachers told Haladyna that during
standardized tests many students threw up, developed headaches, made multiple trips to the lavatory or
burst into tears.
When children face a critical test, what can you do to help them reduce stress and score their best?
Here is advice from experts that can help kids of any age.
Let Home Breed Success A HIGH SCHOOL GIRL once asked Stanley H. Kaplan, founder of the
Kaplan Educational Centers, which coach students in test taking, when she should start preparing for the
SAT. "Three years ago," he replied.
His point was that preparation begins at home, and it should begin early. Students whose parents
encourage them to read, who hold intriguing dinner-table discussions, who teach kids how to think
things through and insist their kids look up words they don't understand, score well in both verbal and
math portions of tests.
That's because they can read and understand questions better and more quickly. "And that comes
from home," explains H. D. Hoover, professor of education at the University of Iowa and director of
the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills. "Vocabulary is something kids bring with them. Other stuff they learn in
school."
Building a strong knowledge base is one part of the equation for success. John E. Anderson,
president of the Center for Sports Psychology, says parents can be instrumental in supplying the other
part which is a winning attitude. "From kindergarten on, compliment your child on each academic
success—a good grade on a drawing or improvement in arithmetic. I call these 'little winners,' "
Anderson explains. A streak of small victories builds confidence.
But there's a fine line. Inspiring your kids to perform does not mean pushing them. According to
Charles Spielberger, distinguished university research professor of psychology at the University of
South Florida, a major reason for test anxiety is the fear kids have about their parents’ expectations.
Mom and Dad are really going to be upset if I don’t get a high score is a common test-defeating
thought. Make it clear that your child’s best effort, rather than a particular score, is what counts. And
don’t dangle rewards for success.
Know the Drill
As a test approaches, make sure your child understands what it will be like. Schools, testing
services or commercial courses usually keep samples of standard exams. After familiarizing herself with
sample SATs, Kristen Stewart, a 12th grader at Greater Nanticoke Area (Pa.) Senior High School, didn't
have to dwell on the instructions. "That gave me five more minutes for the test itself."
Have your child practice under test conditions—a time limit, no interruptions or snacking.
Test Maker Tricks and Tips
Fill in the bubbles. Most standardized tests are scored electronically, so answer spaces should be
fully marked. If you skip a question, be sure to leave the response blank. And don't make other marks.
Beware easy answers. If an answer seems too obvious, it may well be wrong. Questions on
standardized exams often become progressively more difficult. Test makers sometimes include a
"distractor”, a response that looks right but isn't.
Guess smart. Ask first how the test is scored. If the penalty for a wrong answer is small, and you
can eliminate one or more choices in a five-choice question, it may pay to guess.