THE ASPECTS OF GUNGANCHI
NOUN PHRASE
MAKINDE SAHEED AYOBAMI
07/15CB067
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
LINGUISTICS AND NIGERIAN LANGUAGES, FACULTY OF ARTS,
UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN, NIGERIA.
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR OF ARTS (B.A) HONS. DEGREE IN LINGUISTICS.
MAY, 2011.
CERTIFICATION
This essay has been read and approved as meeting the requirements of
the Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages, University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Nigeria.
_____________________________
MRS. S. O. ABUBAKRE
_________________________
DATE
_____________________________
PROF. A. S. ABDUSSALAM
_________________________
DATE
_____________________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
_________________________
DATE
Project Supervisor
Head of Department
DEDICATION
This research project is dedicated to my father, Mr. S. Oladele Makinde
who travelled to the world beyond not long ago. Daddy, you left a legacy that
has continued to scale us through in our various endeavours. May Allah grant
you with al-janah firdaus. Also to my mum who has stood by me before and
after the departure of my father. You are a rare gem…! I also whole heartedly
dedicate this project work to my elderly brother, Dr. I. A. Makinde for his kind
gesture.
ACKNOLWEDGEMENTS
I give all adoration to Almighty Allah, who has sustained my life till this
moment and for His meticuluous guidance over me throughout my stay in the
university.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Supervisor Mrs. S. O.
Abubakr who has been a role model. I thank her for her time, effort,
encouragement and constructive criticisms, which have placed this project on a
footing academic ground.
Thank you ma for giving me the opportunity to
work with you.
I am also grateful to all my able lecturers in the Department who tirelessly
worked to impact knowledge in me from 2007 to this point of exit, your effort
has caused an impaction of knowledge in me, thank you all, for been there for
me.
My profound gratitude goes to my parents Late Mr. S. Oladele Makinde
and Mrs. S. Arike Makinde, your parental care and support cannot be quamtified,
without them I will not be who I am today, may Almighty Allah bountifully enrich
you and perfect all that belongs to you. So also, I want to thank my step mum,
Mrs. Adunni Makinde for her support and prayer, may you never lose your
reward; I also appreciate the effort of my uncle, Mr. M. O. Makinde (Daddy) for
his fatherly advise and support, may you live long in this life, thanks for immense
support.
I will be nothing but an ingrate if I fail to appreciate the unflinching
support of Dr. Ibrahim Adesina Makinde whose fatherly advice and parental care
from my first day in the university till now has been tremendous. Sea shall not
dry, whatever you might have employed in doing all these shall be replenished
by God (In-sh’allahu).
I also wish to badger my acknowledgements to my brothers, Bro. Tunde,
Bro. Tunji, Bro. Bayo and especially Brother Abimbola (ABimak) you epitomize
the maximum degree of humanitarianism, I appreciate you all for your advice
and financial support. May you all never lack anything good in life.
To my sister and her caring husband: Mr. Muftaudeen Olayiwola and Mrs.
Zainab. Makinde Olayiwola whose moral, financial, and material contributions to
my education is unquantifiable. You shall record an unprecedented number of
success this year and ever
(In-sh’allahu). So also deep appreciation goes to
Mrs. Kafayat Makinde Ogunyejo for her support and advice, may almighty Allah
guide your ways.
To my younger ones: Makinde Slaimot, Waheed, Suliyat, Habeeb and
others, you have all been a sources of joy to me. Stagnation shall not be your
portion.
I sincerely appreciate the efforts and supports of my colleagues in the
Department especially; Olaniyi Saheed (2009/2010 Rep), Oyinloye Mayowa
(Scholar), Adeleke Jamiu for their help and assistant rendered to me since we
got acquainted with each other. Thanks for your support, you are part of the
success story!
I will like to appreciate the effort of all my neighbours and roommates for
there tolerance, support and encouragement during our stay in the university. In
person of A. Bideen, Abdullahi, O. Basir, Karmal, Alfa Jimoh, Hammed, O. Akeem
(Hunter), S. Ismail, Kenny, Nijormania, Lateef, Biodun A. Fatai and Nelson. I
thank you all.
A friend in need is a friend indeed. I whole heartedly appreciate the
support and co-operation of my friends: Amoo Biodun, A. Emmanuel, Y. Majeed,
Idris, Demola, A. Jelil, R. Mutiu, Musbaudeen, Ibrahim, M. Fatai, Awo, A.
ABdukadr, Musa, Olaoye Saheed, Lekan, Hammed, Sedorf, A. Ayo and many
others, thank you all for your support and cooperation.
Further more, I am seizing this opportunity to shower encomiums on my
paradise jewel, Miss Tanimowo Ruk‫כ‬yah, for her immeasurable care, affection
and supports in all ramification ever since I met her till now. May you live to reap
all you have contributed in me.
Lastly, I ask Almighty Allah to add this research work to my father’s
good deeds on the day of judgment.
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
S
-
Sentence
DS
-
Deep Structure
SS
-
Surface Structure
NP
-
Noun Phrase
VP
-
Verb Phrase
AP
-
Adjectival Phrase
PP
-
Prepositional Phrase
ADVP -
Adverbial Phrase
N’
-
N-bar
V’
-
V-bar
A’
-
A-bar
N
-
Noun
Pro.
-
Pronoun
V
-
Verb
A
-
Adverb
P
-
Preposition
Conj. -
Conjunction
GB
-
Government and Binding
( )
-
Bracket
XP
-
Maximal Projection
X’
-
X-bar
X”
-
Prime bar
Spec -
Specifier
CP
-
Complementizer Phrase
C
-
Complementizer
C’
-
C-bar
IP
-
Inflectional Phrase
INFL -
Inflection
PS
-
Phrase Structure
Det
-
Determine
TNS -
Tense
Agr
-
Agreement
Aux
-
Auxiliary
Prog. -
Progressive
FOC -
Focus Construction
Move- -
Move alpha
Ø
-
Null
t0
-
Trace
[ ]
-
Representing Phonetic Boundary
(/)
-
Representing High Tone
(-)
-
Low Tone
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgements
iv
List of Symbols/Abbreviations
viii
Table of Contents
x
CHAPTER ONE: Gunganchi Language and its Speakers
1.0
General Introduction
1
1.1
Historical Background
1
1.2
Geographical Location of the Gunganchi Speaker
4
1.3
Socio-Cultural Profile
4
1.3.1 Occupation
4
1.3.2 Religion
5
1.3.3 Housing
5
1.3.4 Marriage
5
1.3.5 Festival
6
1.3.6 Education
6
1.3.7 Administration
7
1.4
Genetic Classification
7
1.5
Scope and Organization of the Study
9
1.6
Data Collection
10
1.6.1 Data Analysis
11
Review of the Chosen Theoretical Framework
11
1.7.1 X-Bar Theory
14
1.7.2 Projection Principle
15
1.7
Principle of Head Parameters
16
1.7.4 Case Theory
18
1.7.5 Government Theory
20
1.7.6 The Binding Theory
21
1.7.7 The Bounding Theory
23
1.7.8 Theta Theory
24
1.7.9 Control Theory
25
CHAPTER TWO: The Phono-Syntax of Gunganchi
2.0
Introduction
26
2.1
Sound Inventories in Gunganchi
26
1.7.3
2.2
Syllable Structure of Gunganchi Language
26
2.1.1 Consonants Sounds in Gunganchi Language
27
2.1.2 Description and Distribution of Consonants Sounds in
Gunganchi Language
28
2.1.3 Vowel Sounds in Gunganchi Language
38
2.1.4 Description and Distribution Vowel Sounds in Gunganchi
Language
40
2.1.5 Tone System in Gunganchi Language
45
2.2
Syllable Structure of Gunganchi Language
48
2.3
Lexical Categories in Gunganchi Language
53
2.3.1 Nouns
54
2.3.1.1 Proper Noun
55
2.3.1.2 Common Noun
55
2.3.1.3 Concrete Noun
55
2.3.1.4 Abstract Nouns
56
2.3.1.5 Countable Noun
56
2.3.1.6 Uncountable Nouns
56
2.3.2 Pronoun
57
2.3.2.1 Interrogative Pronouns
2.3.3 Verbs
2.4
2.5
58
58
2.3.3.1 Transitive Verbs
59
2.3.3.2 Intransitive Verbs
59
2.3.4 Adverbs
59
2.3.5 Adjectives
60
2.3.6 Preposition
60
2.3.7 Conjunctions
61
2.3.8 Interjection
61
Phrasal Categories in Gunganchi Language
61
2.4.1 Noun Phrase
62
2.4.2 Verb Phrase
64
2.4.3 Adjectival Phrase
67
2.4.4 prepositional Phrase
70
Phrase Structure Rules in Gunganchi Language
73
CHAPTER THREE: Gunganchi Noun Phrase
3.0
Introduction
76
3.1
Sentence Structure
76
3.2
3.1.1 Simple Sentence
76
3.1.2 Compound Sentence in Gunganchi
79
3.1.3 Complex Sentence
82
Functional Classification of Sentences in Gunganchi Language 84
3.2.1 Declarative Sentence
84
3.2.2 Imperative Sentence
86
3.2.3 Interrogative Sentence
86
3.2.4 Exclamatory Sentence
88
3.3
Basic Word Order
88
3.4
The Noun Phrase
93
3.4.1 Noun Phrase and the Head Parameter
93
3.4.2 Noun Phrase as a Single Noun Head
95
3.4.3 Noun Phrase as a Pronoun
97
3.4.4 Modification of Noun Phrase by Determiners
98
3.4.5 Modification of Noun Phrase by Adjectival Phrase
101
3.4.6 Modification of NP by Prepositional Phrase
103
3.4.7 Modification of Noun Phrase by Complementizer Phrase 106
3.4.8 NPs Joined by the Conjunction
110
3.5
Functions of Noun Phrase in Gunganchi
112
3.5.1 Noun Phrase as Subject of the Predicate
113
3.5.2 Noun Phrase as Apposition of Subject
117
3.5.3 Noun Phrase as a Direct Object of the Verb in a Sentence 121
3.5.4 Noun Phrase as Indirect Object of the Verb
124
3.5.5 Noun Phrase as a Compliment of Preposition
128
CHAPTER FOUR: Transformational Processes in Gunganchi Language
4.0
Introduction
133
4.1
Transformational Processes in Gunganchi
133
4.2
Question Formation
137
4.2.1 WH-Question
138
4.2.2 Yes/No Question
142
4.3
Reflexivization
149
4.4
Focus Construction
153
4.4.1 Direct Object NP Focus
156
4.4.2 Indirect Object NP Focus
157
4.4.3 Verb Focusing
158
Passivization
159
4.5
CHAPTER FIVE: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
5.0
Introduction
164
5.1
Summary
164
5.2
Observation
165
5.3
Conclusion
166
5.4
Recommendations
167
References
168
Appendix
171
CHAPTER ONE
Gunganchi Language and its Speakers
1.0
General Introduction
In this chapter, we shall investigate the Gunganchi language and its
speakers, historical background of Gunganchi speakers sociocultural profile of the
people, scope and organization of the language, theoretical framework, data
collection method and analysis, as well as the review of the chosen theoretical
framework.
1.1
Historical Background
Language is the fabrics that ties every member of the society together,
which serves as an instrument used by man for specific
and distinguishable
purpose. More interestingly, linguistics has been the discipline that studies
human languages solely for the purpose of preserving them most especially
preventing them from going into extinction. Therefore, this long essay has been
meant for that purpose to study Gunganchi so as to explore the possibilities of
saving it from dying.
Indeed, the focus of this research work is to shed light on the various
structure, as well as the function of noun phrase in Gunganchi language. Thus,
the area covered in this
research are brief discussion on some phonological
concepts such as sound, tonal, and syllable inventories of the Gunganchi
language, as well as some syntactic concepts which are phrase structure rules’
lexical categories, basic word order and sentence types. Also, the research work
addresses some transformational processes attested in the language, and these
include focusing, question formation, refletivization and passivization etc.
The Gunganwa people i.e. speakers of Gunganchi are commonly based in
Kebbi state, the home of Argungu international fisting and cultural festival which
came into existence in 27th August 1991. It was carved out of the former Sokoto
state with it’s headquarters in Benin Kebbi. Historically, Gunganwa people came
from an Island called “Gungun”, they got the name “Gunganwa” from “gungun”
which means water, and “ganwa” means people, who were surrounded by water.
In Hausa language any land that is surrounded by water is called “gungun”.
However, Gunganwa is an adopted name for the Bareshe people and their Hausa
neighbouring people. There are discrepancies among the various accounts on the
historical origin of the Gunganwa people. A tradition reveals that Gunganwa
warrior called Kachira who allied himself with the Hausa Soldiers that migrated to
the one extreme north and eventually settled with his co-fighter in the present
day Yauri town. Another contradictory version reveals that, Sangoni warriors who
came from Mali to exercise territoria control eventually settled in Yauri Local
Government area of Kebbi state and part of Lopa and Loru gunganwa
neighbouring areas.
Another legend states that, they are hunters who migrated from Kastina
state on an hunting expedition. From the foregoing it is crystal clear that there
are multitude accounts on the ancient legendary of the Guganchi people. The
Yauri local government has an estimated population of females and males, Male
(38,205) while females is (36,709) with the total population of (74,916). They
have another name called among themselves which is ‘turesha’. This name is
only used by the native speakers. They enjoy tropical climate which is
characterized by two major temperating. The hot and cold temperature. The vain
begins in May/June and ends in October with the heaviest fall occurring in July
and August. The extremely cold harmattan period usually accompanised by
clusty wind and fog of alarming intensity, prevails in November, December and
January.
1.2
Geographical Location of the Gunganchi Speakers
The Gunganchis are located in Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi State between the
landscape of Niger to the west and Sokoto to the north. They pread alluvingly
over a vast expanse of Sahehian land of approximately 36.229 square kilometers
representing 3.9% of the total land area. The Gunganch is occupying an area
between the latitude 100 and 130 15’ N and ongitude 30 30 E. The total
population of the speakers is conservatively put at 2.766 people in the 2007
census.
1.3
Socio-Cultural Profile
Every community has it’s distinct ways of life. The way people eat, what
they wears, their mode of marriage, etc. differ in various societies. The
Gunganchi people. Just like every community have their distinct culture and
tradition.
1.3.1 Occupation
Gunganchi people are dominantly farmers and pre-dominantly fisher-men,
they practice both subsistence and commercial forms of farming but they are
majorly on cultivation of land, growing of crops for the sustainability of their
household. They also engage themselves in fishing using a fishing cage – called
“Suru”.
1.3.2 Religion
Gunganchi tribe are mostly Muslim, they also have few pagans and idol
worshippers. These religion diversities make the people of Kebbi state live in
peace with one another.
1.3.3 Housing
The factors determining the building of houses in Gunganchi land are war
and farming activities. The Gunganchi people used to live in huts. The major
building structure is the hay and the mud building. Those using mud for their
building are the civilized among them. Till date, they are still using mud in
building their houses.
1.3.4 Marriage
Presently, there are three kinds of marriage practices in Gunganchi land:
Ilamic, Christian and traditional marriage, but, in the olden days, the dominant
one was Islamic marriage. Gunganchi people practice both the monogamous and
the polygamous forms of marriage. If someone gives birth to a baby girl, a man
will visit the birth place and show his interest. So, when she grows up, they will
farm for her parents and do everything to please them. Moreover, the boy will go
along with Guinea corn but no bride price is needed.
1.3.5 Festival
They also celebrate a number of festivals among them is ‘Idembu’ which is
called the millet festival. During this festival, goat’s blood or any other bush
animal is used to sacrifice to their higher god called ‘Ijigo’. This festival brings all
Gunganchi speaking communities together.
1.3.6 Education
Before the advent of the western education, the Gunganchi people had a
way of teaching moralities, respect and skills within their communities. The
education of their children is of uttermost importance because, they believe that
an uneducated mind will definitely die as an ignorant, and will be problematic to
himself and the community in general. They thereby teach and impart moral
knowledge to their children right from birth, and as they grow, they provide an
avenue of giving them skills training.
1.3.7 Administration
In Gunganchi community, they appoint an elderly and respected person as
king. The coronation is celebrated in an orderly and elaborate manner. The king
them becomes the paramount ruler of the land who presides over the social,
economic and cultural of the peoples.
1.4
Genetic Classification
According to Greenberg (1966: 8) African language belongs to various
families, and there are four maingroups namely, Niger-Kordofanian, Afroasiatic,
Nilo Saharan and Khoisan. The Gunganchi language is said to be classified under
the Niger-Congo family, belonging to the group of Kainji. The following diagram
(Fig. 1) shows the genetic classification of the language.
Nigerkodofania
Niger Congo
Mande
Oko
Atlantic
Defoid
Western Kainji
Atlantic Congo
Kainji
Volta Congo
Idomoid
New Benue Congo
Edoid
Platoid
Eastern Kainji
Kamuku
Kaiji Lake
Reshe (Gungawa)
1.5.1 Genetic Classification of Gungawa (Fig. 1)
Kambari
Bassa
Lopa
Source: Ross Jones (1992).
1.5
Scope and Organization of the Study
In this research, the general overview of noun phrases in Gunganchi
language will be discussed. This research work is divided into five chapters of
relevant aspects of the theory of syntax.
The first chapter is the introductory segment which includes the general
background of the study of the speakers, the historical background, sociocultural profile, genetic classification, the scope and organization of the study,
the data collection method, data analysis and the brief review of the chosen
theory are also examined.
The second chapter, shall focus on basic phonological concepts such as
sounds inventory, tonal inventory and syllable inventory, the basic syntactic
concept such as phrase structure rules and lexical categories. The third chapter
will focus on the main aspect of the study, which is the noun phrase of
Gunganchi i.e. the structure of noun phrase and their functions in the language.
The fourth chapter, will examine the transformational processes such as
focusing, question formation, passivisation and reflexivization etc. which are
attested in the language. The last chapter of this research work, which is chapter
five, will present a brief summary of the whole research findings, draw
conclusion and recommendations based on such finding.
1.6
Data Collection
This research was made possible through the help of bi-lingua language
helper. However, the Ibadan four hundred word list and some sentence
construction were used to extract necessary information from the language
speaker. The method of collection was through direct translation from English
language to Gunganchi language However, bi-lingual approach was used
because the informant speak more than one language which include: English,
Gunganchi and Hausa languages. More so, the informant is a native speaker of
Gunganchi.
LANGUAGE HELPER (INFORMANT)
Name:
Muaza Bagudu
Age: 54 years
Occupation: Military Officer
Address:
Kebbi state
Native Language: Gunganchi
xxv
1.6.1 Data Analysis
In order to have accurate analysis, Ibadan four hundred wordlist with an
equivalent meaning in Gunganchi language was used. Also, the frame technique
was used, which deals with phrasal and sentential constructions in English
language directly translated to Gungachi language with the assistance of the
informant. This made it possible to determine the actual underlying form of a
word, constituent and possible syntactic classes to which each word belongs to in
Gunganchi language.
1.7
Review of the Chosen Theoretical Framework
Government and Binding Theory (GB) will be used in the analysis of
Gunganchi Noun Phrase. Due to the fact that it brings what is common and
constitute the structure of phrase; this theory is a modular deductive theory of
universal grammar (UG) which posits multiple levels of representation related by
the transformational rule “move alpha” (Sanusi, 1996: 19-21).
Haegman (1991: 13) defined government and binding theory as a theory
of universal grammar which is the system of all principles that are common to all
human languages. Government and binding theory is otherwise known as
principle and parameters theory. In government and binding theory, the
xxvi
grammar is a continuous interaction between component and sub-theories
embodying different principles and parameters.
Sub-Theories of Government and Binding
The core grammar of a given language is derived from the interaction of
sub-theories of universal grammar. These sub-theories are inter-related that
each of them can account for grammaticality or ungrammatically of any sentence
(Horrocks, 1987: 29).
These sub theories are:
1.
X-bar theory
2.
Case-theory
3.
Government theory
4.
Binding theory
5.
Bounding theory
6.
Theta theory
7.
Control theory
The above listed sub-theories are diagrammatically represented below to
show the inter-relationship among them.
xxvii
X-BAR Theory
D-STRUCTURE
PROJECTION
PRINCIPLE
LEXICON
Move-a
(Bounding)
Ө-THEORY
(Ө-CRITERION)
CASE-THEORY
(CASE FILTER)
S. STRUCTURE
PHONETIC FORM
LOGICAL FORM
Fig. 2: Modules of Grammar
(Adapted from Sells (1985) and Cook (1988).
1.7.1 X-Bar Theory
xxviii
The x-bar theory defines possible phrase structure configurations in
language generally. The central notion is that, each of the major lexical
categories (noun, verb, preposition, adjectives) is the head of a structure
dominated by a phrasal node of the same category e.g. noun: noun phrase;
verb: verb phrase (Cook 1988: 32).
Chomsky (1986), in is analysis, says that every maximal projection has a
specifier of an XP position, which with the intermediate bar projection serving as
the XP’s core. The core consists of the head X0 and the complement which can
be a maximal projection itself.
Then, we can say that the maximal projection (x-bar) is another full name
for full phrasal category associated with a particular lexical category as the head
of that phrase. this theory is represented by this phrase structure rule:
xxix
X”
Spec
X’
X
X0
Adjunct
Complement
X” which is equal to XP is the maximal projection. It has a specifier position. The
X0 is the
head of the phrase and it can subcategorise for complement and
adjunct.
1.7.2 Projection Principle
Chomsky (1981: 29) state that representation at each syntactic level is
projected from lexicon, in that they observe the sub-categorization properties of
lexical item; projection principle requires lexical properties to be projected to all
levels of syntactic representation i.e. a lexical item projects from its zero bar
level to one single bar level, which is optional, then to double bar level. The zero
bar level is referred to as the core projection level, the single bar level is referred
xxx
to as the intermediate projection level and the double bar level is referred to as
the maximal projection level.
The illustration is shown below:
X”
Maximal projection level
X’
Intermediate projection level
X0
Core projection level
1.7.3 Principle of Head Parameters
Cook (1996: 150) says that, inflectional phrase are built around functional
heads, which may contain lexical materials such as morphological ending but are
not required to contain lexical material.
The top levels of the sentence have been unified with the rest of X-bar
theory. The maximum level of sentence is called inflectional phrase (IP) in X-bar
theory.
IP

Spec I’
xxxi
I

I
Comp.
IP
Spec
I’
I
Comp.
Other functional phrases are:
Complementizer Phrase (CP)
CP

Spec C’
C’

C
IP
CP
Spec
C’
C
IP
xxxii
Determinal phrases
DP

Spec D’
D’

D
NP
DP
Spec
D’
D
NP
1.7.4 Case Theory
Case theory deals with the principle of case assignment to constitutes.
Chomsky
(1986) assumes that all NPs with lexical content are assigned
(abstract) case. Abstract case is usually distinguished from case as an overt
inflectional category by the use of an initial capital letter. The basic idea is that,
case is assigned under government, the choice of case being determined by the
governor in any given example. Government is a traditional notion involving the
delimitation of the sphere of influence of a particular category with respect to
adjacent categories.
xxxiii
Adjancency is also one of the requirements of case assignment. This is to
say that case assignees and case assignors must be contguous with no barrier
blocking the discharge of the (abstract) case (Yusuf, 1998). In government and
binding (GB) theory, the case are said to be assigned under Government as:
a.
Nominative cases – assigned by tensed inflectional
b.
Accusative – assigned by Verbs
c.
Oblique – assigned by preposition
Nouns or adjective do not assign any case. Furthermore, on the assignment of
case, all phrases that have phonetic content must have case or else they are ill
formed. This corollary is known as the case filter which is only detachable in the
phonetic form. Case filter states that NP without a case assigned should be
filtered out.
NP
+ lexical
- case
xxxiv
The case filter in this case says that, any NP without a case assigned should be
filtered out. Finally, according to (Cook, 1988: 87) case theory recognizes two
case assignments:
a.
Inherent case assignment (that is assigned at the deep structure level).
b.
Structural/Abstract: case assignment is at the surface structure level.
1.7.5 Government Theory
In essence, government theory deals with the relationship between a head
and its complement and it also describes relationships in other sub theories
Chomsky (1986: 17) says of an empty category that “A noun-prominal empty
category must be promptly category is exempted from government. Therefore,
Chomsky defined proper government as: ‘’ is properly governed by ‘r’ if it
governed by ‘r’ and a certain kind of connection holds between ‘r’ and ‘’. He
further said that, ‘r’ properly governs ‘’, if ‘r’ governs ‘’ or antecedents governs
‘’. The configuration is as follow:
In the above configuration, ‘r’ governs ‘’ and ‘y’ when ‘’ and ‘y’ are
sisters to ‘r’. ‘’ can C-command ‘’ i.e. they govern each other. It is obvious
that, crucial to the concept of ‘government is the issue of C-commands. It is the
xxxv
relationship between an element and other elements it is “superior to” but does
not dominate.
Government can be recognized if they are adjacent, and adjacent is
contiguity i.e. it implies that there must be no blocking between a governor and
its governee.
1.7.6 The Binding Theory
According to Malmjaer (1991: 46), “the binding theory is a theory that is
concerned or deals with the syntactic domain in which NPs can or cannot be
constructed as” co-referential in the sentence”. Binding theory is one of the most
important constructs in the system. It is concerned primarily with the conditions
under which NPS are interrupted as co-referential with other NPs in the same
sentence.
Binding theory is concerned with the categories to be bound and free in
defining the domain in which binding takes place (Horrocks, 1987: 2) for the
purpose of binding theory,NPs that act as arguments are assumed to fall into one
of the following categories:
a.
Anaphors
b.
Prominals
xxxvi
c.
Referential expressions
Anaphors:
These are NPs whose reference is necessarily determined by sentence
internally and which cannot have independent reference. Reciprocal and reflexive
pronouns fall into this class e.g. Emmanuel loves himself.
Himself in this sentence is referring to the subject NP Emmanuel.
Prominals: Prominal are NPs that lack specific lexical content and have only the
feature; persons, number, gender and case unlike anaphors. They may either
refer to individuals independently or core for to individual name. e.g. Ade says
Tolu should be flogged.
Referential expression: This is otherwise know as R-expression. As the name
implies, they are noun phrases (NP) with lexical ability here is excluded e.g. Tunji
says Bimbo should be sent out Tunji and Bimbo are different persons, even when
the same name is used twice, the most natural interpretation is one where two
different people are involved.
Bayo said Bayo must be flogged. It must however be admitted that, coreference here is a possibility, but the sentence so interpreted is stylistically
highly marked revealing something of the speaker’s attitude.
xxxvii
1.7.7 The Bounding Theory
The Bounding theory is concerned with the way movement rule (move r)
can be constrained (Cook 1996). In essence, it deals with the limitation to be
placed on the displacement of constituents by the transformational vale scheme
move r. The location from which movement takes place does not have to be
‘adjacent’ to the landing site but it must be ‘subjacent’.
Movement rule within GB theory is assumed to involve
An extraction site
A landing site
An intervening gap
xxxviii
Landing site
Intervening gap
Extraction site
Fig. 3: Movement Rule
1.7.8 Theta Theory
This is a term that stands for thematic roles and their syntactic realization
as specific argument of a predicate. This theory says, “that one argument must
correspond to each thematic role and vice-versa i.e. an NP must correspond to
each thematic role” Chomsky (1986: 4). Argument, in this context, refers to the
noun phrase which is of two types, subject and object noun phrases. The object
is further divided into two parts, which are direct and indirect objects. The
thematic role is also a role that assigns functions to arguments. The common
thematic roles are: agent, patient, goal, location, sources, experience and
benefactive.
xxxix
1.7.9
Control Theory
Control theory is the transformational analysis of sentence with verbs
taking infinitival complements that have null subjects understood as coreferential with an NP in the main clause (Horrocks, 1987: 31).
Trask (1993: 62) defined “control as module of grammar that deals with
the phenomenon of a verb phrase complement that has no overt subject and
consequently interpreted semantically as having some determiner phrase
(DP)appearing somewhere within the sentence or an arbitrary (unspecified).
Determiners phrase that function as its “subject” or “controller”. A non-overt
subject DP of the infinitival clause is technically represented within GB framework
by a distinct ‘empty category’ called. PRO.
Riemsdjik and Williams (1983: 132) “the abbreviation PRO has been
devised to stand for a phonetically null pronoun that occupies the subject
position of infinitives in control theory”.
CHAPTER TWO
The phono-Syntax of Gunganchi
2.0
INTRODUCTION
xl
In this chapter, we shall present the brief sound systems/inventories
phonological concepts in Gunganchi language i.e. sound inventory, the tonal
inventory and the syllable inventory. We shall also discuss some basic syntactic
concepts viz: phrase structure rules, phrase types and lexical categories in
Gunganchi language.
2.1
SOUND INVENTORIES IN GUNGANCHI
Phonology deals with the function and patterning of sounds. The sounds of
all language are organized in such a way that linguists can discover some system
that underlies their appearance Ladefoged (1975: 25) defines phonology as the
systems and patterns of sounds that occur in all language. Oyebade (1988: 2)
says that phonology is the scientific study of the arbitrary vocal symbols used in
human speech and the patterns into which these symbols enter to produce
intelligent utterances.
If it crystal clear form the definition above that, phonology attempts to
study the form of the vocal symbols as well as the patterns that exist in all
language of the world.
By sound inventory, we mean the consonants and vowels that attested in
language, which Gunganchi is not an exception.
xli
2.1.1 Consonants Sounds in Gunganchi Language
Yusuf (1992: 18) described consonants as sounds produced by obstructing
the airflow totally or partially at some point in the tract.
There are 23 consonants attested in Gunganchi language. They are
represented in the chart form below, following the international phonetic
alphabet (IPA) chart:
xlii
Velar
K
gb
Glottal
t d
Labialized velar
P b
Palatal
Stop
Alveolar
ATION
Bilabial
ARTICUL
Labio-velar
PLACE OF ARTICULATION
Palato alveolar
MANNER OF
Kw
g
g
w
Nasal
M
Fricative
n
s z
Affricate

ŋw
ŋ
H
t
d
з
Lateral
l
Central
r
Approximant
j
w
Fig. 4: Gunganchi Consonant Chart
2.1.2 Description and Distribution of Consonants Sounds in Gungnachi
Language
xliii
/p/: Voiceless Bilabial Plosive
Word-initially
[íánìa]
‘give’
[pahá]
‘put on’
[pípírò]
‘turn round’
Word medial
[rìpò]
‘belly’
[ípúl‫]כ‬
‘navel’
[írípìa]
‘buttocks’
/b/: Voiced Bilabial Plosive
Word initial
[bípò]
‘request’
[bírá]
‘choose’
[babì]
‘children’
Word medial
[nbípí]
‘ask’
[nbúkílà]
‘get’
[ĩtábìa]
‘shoot’
xliv
/t/: Voiceless Alveolar Plosive
[tùbúbu]
‘beard’
[túlùpuà]
‘sand’
[tubalua]
‘lies’
Word medial
[àt‫כ‬a]
‘ear’
[rí∫ító]
‘head’
[ítúmú]
‘heart’
/d/: Voiced Alveolar Plosive
Word medial
[dalãsua]
‘eight’
[dúkà]
‘touch (with hand)’
[dí]
‘here’
Word medial
[ríbùdia]
‘day’
[úduhú]
‘darkness’
[ndóa]
‘male’
/k/: Voiceless Velar Plosive
xlv
Word medial
[kìlèlìbánià] ‘look for’
[kúbùnálà] ‘split’
[kúbòr‫]כ‬
‘close’
Word medial
[nkúnìa]
‘sell’
[úkàto]
‘hoe’
[ĩtúkià]
‘pierce’
/g/: Voiced Velar Plosive
Word initial
Word medial
[ngúgí]
‘grind’
[ágìamòà]
‘chin’
[agoroa]
‘kolanut’
/gb/:
Voiced Labio-Velar Plosive
Word initial
Word Medial
[ígbgwa]
‘papper’
xlvi
[ágbana]
‘groundnut’
[ìmúgbía]
‘finish’
xlvii
/kw/: Voiceless Labialized Velar Stop
Word medial
[úkwákwúrá]
‘well’
[íròkwá]
‘horse’
[ítálòkwa]
‘chicken’
Word initial
[kwá]
‘take’
/gw/: Voiced Labialized Velar Stop
Word medial
[ĩgwuli]
‘weed’
/m/: Bilabial nasal plosive (Voiced)
Word initial
[máhà]
‘salt’
[mótó]
‘beer’
[mósó]
‘palm wine’
Word medial
[rílemũ]
‘orange’
[rímósàró] ‘maize’
xlviii
[ríámá]
‘food’
/n/: Voiced nasal plosive
Word initial
[ndóa]
‘male’
[ndú‫כ‬ukuní]
‘chief’
[nwòzo]
‘sweet’
Word medial
[áníní]
‘eye’
[únú]
‘mouth’
[rínùjã]
‘breast’
/ŋ/: Velaric nasal (Voiced)
Word initial
[ŋgíràníà]
‘descend’
Word medial
/ŋw/: Labialized Velaric nasal
[ĩŋwí]
‘drink’
[úgwá]
‘skin’
xlix
/s/: Voiceless alveolar fricative
Word initial
[sùkùmba] ‘nail’
[sútajã]
‘saliva’
[súlóp‫]כ‬
‘mud’
Word medial
[risàka]
‘basket’
[ísùlíkí]
‘thread’
[ísòkòsúá]
‘guinea pork’
/z/: Voiced alveolar fricative
Word medial
[rízombá]
‘penis’
[ízàkàra]
‘cock’
[hizaki]
‘leopard’
/∫/: Voiceless Palato-alveolar fricative
Word initial
[∫íkítàmí]
‘show(something)’
l
Word medial
[i∫èbu‫]כ‬
‘carve(wood)’
[rí∫ító]
‘head’
[áká∫a]
‘thigh’
/h/: Voiceless glottal fricative
Word initial
[hipepa]
‘goat’
[hiuma]
‘monkey’
[hámíá]
‘person’
Word medial
[úwĩha]
‘sun’
[áhé]
‘horn’
/t∫/: Voiceless Palato-alevolar affricate
Word initial
[t∫ínó]
‘hair’
[t∫nrố ut∫è] ‘bud’
[t∫íbìni]
‘feaces’
li
Word medial
[nt∫íkia]
‘kneel’
[ntét∫á]
‘sit down’
[láhàt∫á]
‘sleep’
/dƷ/:
Voiced palato-alveolar affricate
Word medial
[wúdƷíka]
‘bag’
[idƷìma]
‘spear’
[mãdƷà]
‘oil plam’
/l/: Alveolar lateral
Word initial
[láhàt∫á]
‘sleep’
[lóhá]
‘snake’
[léèta]
‘red’
Word medial
[rílumia]
‘tongue’
[ríhàlomi]
‘meat’
[rílóa]
‘yam’
lii
/r/: Alveolar flap
Word initial
[rílumia]
‘tongue’
[rípò]
‘belly’
[rótúá]
‘neck’
Word medial
[írí[ìa]
‘buttocks’
[rirogo]
‘cassava’
[úróma]
‘iron(metal)’
/j/: Palatal approximant
Word initial
[jítaú]
‘body’
[jína]
‘bee’
[júpa]
‘louse’
Word medial
[rínùjã]
‘breast’
[íjókwá]
‘arm’
[íjũ]
‘house’
liii
/w/: Labio-velar approximant
Word initial
[wina]
‘tail’
[wúlèbuai] ‘dream’
[wá,ánì]
‘follow’
Word medial
[nwòzò]
‘sweet’
[nwópí]
‘say’
[ĩwí]
‘pour’
2.1.3 Vowel Sounds in Gunganchi Language
Yusuf (1992: 9) defines vowels as sounds produced with very little or no
obstruction to the air passage in the vocal tract. Vowels are described based on
the following parameters:
(i)
The height of the tongue
(ii)
The roundness of the lips and
(iii)
The state of the glottis
Gunganchi language has (8) oral vowel sounds
Below are (Figures 5 & 6) of oral vowel charts
liv
Front
High
Back
i
Mid-high
Mid-low
Low
Central
u

e
o

ε
a
Fig. 5: Gungauchi Oral Vowel Chart
There are vowels produced with the velum lowered so that the air escape
through both the nose and the mouth (Yusuf 1992: 31) Gunganchi language
have 8 nasal vowel which are shown below
lv
Front
High
Central
Back
ĩ
Mid-high
Ũ
ẽ
Mid-low
ồ

ε
Low
ã
Fig. 6: Gunganchi Nasalized Vowel Chart
2.1.4 Description and Distribution Vowel Sounds in Gunganchi
Language
Oral Vowels:
/i/: High front unrounded vowel
Word initial
[ípúl‫]כ‬
‘navel’
[írípìà]
‘buttocks’
[íkònua]
‘beans’
Word medial
[írípìà]
[jítaú]
[aníní]
‘buttocks’
‘body’
‘eye’
lvi
Word final
[í∫ãbí]
[útũbi]
[aníní]
‘fish’
‘stomach’
‘eye’
/e/: Mid-high front unrounded vowel
Word initial
[eria]
‘egg’
Word medial
[túgbéría]
[túbéká]
[remà]
‘cotton’
‘bark(of tree)’
‘mountain’
Word final
[útahế]
‘hand’
[rúmíé]
‘hunger’
[áhé]
‘horn’
//: Mid-low unrounded vowel
Word medial
[í∫kubí]
‘bird’
[ndúdrm] ‘man’
[údórĩkrĩ] ‘old person’
Word final
[túrì]
‘guinea corn’
[ntàmí]
‘spit’
[dí]
‘here’
lvii
/a/: Low back unrounded
Word initial
[áníní]
[àt‫כ‬a]
[ání]
‘eye’
‘ear’
‘teeth’
Word medial
[ágìamòa] ‘jaw’
[úmálúá]
‘back’
[táná]
‘soup’
Word final
[olua]
‘nose’
[rílumia]
‘tongue’
[rótúá]
‘neck’
//:
Word medial
[ilàlá]
‘elephant’
/u/: High back rounded vowel
Word initial
[únú]
‘mouth’
[útũmbí]
‘stomach’
[úróma]
‘iron’
Word medial
[olua]
‘nose’
[sútàjĩ]
‘salva’
[túpáhá]
‘wine’
lviii
Word final
[ítúmú]
‘heart’
[únú]
‘mouth’
[tùbúbu]
‘beard’
/o/: Mid-high back rounded vowel
Word initial
[opeta]
‘medicine’
[owi]
‘corpse’
[opua]
‘ten’
Word medial
[mótó]
‘wine’
[rirogo]
‘cassava’
[agoroa]
‘kolanut’
Word final
[rípò]
‘belly’
[mótó]
‘wine’
[rirogo]
‘cassava’
/‫כ‬/: Mid-low back rounded vowel
Word medial
[àt‫כ‬a]
‘ear’
[ĩt‫כ‬a]
‘burn’
[t‫כ‬à]
‘enter’
Word final
[ípúl‫]כ‬
‘navel’
[al‫]כ‬
‘seed’
[úpún‫]כ‬
‘stink’
lix
NASAL VOWELS
/ĩ/: High front unrounded nasal vowel
Word initial
[ĩmina]
‘work’
[ĩherà]
‘cold’
[ĩrími]
‘lick’
Word medial
[úwĩhá]
‘sunshine’
[údórĩkrĩ] ‘old person’
[ídƷdƷĩ]
‘heavy’
Word final
[at∫ĩ]
‘firewood’
[út∫ĩ]
‘tree’
[májĩ]
‘blood’
/ế/: Mid-high front unrounded nasal vowel
Word medial
[tếsua]
‘six’
[álàtếzua] ‘sixty’
Word final
[útahế]
‘hand’
/ã/: Low central unrounded nasal vowel
Word medial
[í∫ãbí]
‘fish’
[mãdƷà]
‘oil palm’
[úbãgo]
‘wall’
lx
Word final
[sútàjã]
‘salva’
[út∫ã]
‘ground’
[nasã]
‘four’
/ũ/: High back rounded nasal vowel
Word medial
[ímũrí]
‘cooking’
[átũga]
‘village’
[wũgbárìkinama] ‘hunter’
Word final
[ríjũ]
‘smoke’
[útũ]
‘mortar’
[ipuhũ]
‘rubbish heap’
/‫כ‬/: Mid low back rounded nasal vowel
Word final
[íkàh‫]כ‬
‘run’
[to‫]כ‬
‘dance’
[súlóp‫]כ‬
‘mud’
/ố/: Mid-high back rounded nasal vowel
Word medial
[álàtlốzàù]
[ídãga ídốgo]
[t∫nrõ ut∫è]
‘eighty’
‘long stick’
‘bud’
2.1.5 Tone System in Gunganchi Language
Tones are pitch variations that affect the meaning of a word in a language.
However, all languages also use intonation, which is the use of pitch variation to
lxi
convey syntactic information but the pattern are super imposed on the tones
Ladefoged (1975: 252).
We have register tone, which comprises of high, mid and low tones. High
tone is orthographically represented as [/], low is represented as [\] and mid is
generally left unmarked. We also have the contour tone, which comprises of
falling and rising tones, orthographically represented as:
Falling tone [^]
Rising tone []
Contrastive tones are usually marked over the vowels in a tone language
but they are often properties of the syllables as a whole. They can also occur on
voiced consonants that can be regarded as syllabic nasals Ladefoged (1975:
253).
Gunganchi has three basic register tones. In Gunganchi languages, there
are words that are contrastive in meaning due to their tonal differences.
Examples of such words include the following:
i.
ii.
[útú]
[utù]
[úbì]
[ubì]
‘mortar’
‘dust’
‘song’
‘child’
Examples below illustrate the distribution of tones in Gunganchi language:
lxii
i.
L
+
[mãdзà]
[àlosò]
[ùbiù]
L
ii.
H
+
[tátá]
[rílóa]
[mótó]
H
M
+
[wapa]
[al]
[rina]
H
+
M
iii.
iv.
‘oil palm’
‘twenty’
‘black’
‘soup’
‘yam’
‘wine’
‘mat’
‘seed’
‘name’
L
[ápèta]
[wεtalà]
[rímùnu]
‘feather’
‘return’
‘work’
v.
L
+
[mètá]
[àta]
[tùbúbu]
H
vi.
L
+
[làrímí]
[ìmúgbía]
[ùtábá]
H
+
H
‘lose’
‘finish’
‘tobacco’
vii.
H
+
[ndóá]
[hámíá]
[íméná]
H
+
H
‘male’
‘person’
‘walk’
‘fear’
‘ear’
‘beard’
lxiii
viii. M
+
[ajaba]
[agbana]
[olua]
2.2
M
+
M
‘plantain’
‘groundnut’
‘nose’
SYLLABLE STRUCTURE OF GUNGANCHI LANGUAGE
Ladefoged (1975: 248) states that: syllable may be considered to be
abstract unit that exists at some higher level in the mental activity of a speaker.
However, he further explained that, a syllable can be also divided for descriptive
purpose into its onset and rhyme. The rhyming part of syllable consist of the
vowel and any consonant that comes after it. consonant before rhyme form the
onset of syllable. The rhyme of a syllable can also be the nucleus, which is the
vocalic part, and the coda which consists of any final consonant. According to
Hyman (1975: 188), a syllable consist of two important parameters called the
‘onset’ and the ‘cove’. The cove could be further divided into two segments: the
peak and the coda as shown in the following tree diagram.
lxiv
Syllable
Onset
Core
Peak
Coda
He stated further that, in a CVC syllable structure, the first ‘C” stands for onset,
the ‘V’ for peak while the last ‘C’ is the coda. He also said that, it is not all
syllables that have the onset and the coda but every syllable has a peak or
nucleus.
The major distinctions between syllable types found in languages have
been between open and closed syllables. An open syllable ends with a vowel
while a closed syllable ends with a consonant.
Gunganchi language attests only open syllable type. This means that
words in Gunganchi language end with vowels.
Mono-Syllabic Structures
According to Malbery (1963: 129), a syllable consisting of a consonant plus
a vowel is the oldest of all syllable types, the only one which is general in all
languages. Example include:
lxv
CV Structure
i.
[wo]

CV
‘die’
ii.
[kwá]

CV
‘take’
Di-Syllable Words
These are words that have two syllables. They may include V-CV, N-CV
and CV-CV syllable types.
Example of words with V-CV syllable structure are:
i.
[ání]

VCV
‘teeth’
ii.
[úní]

VCV
‘mouth’
iii.
[al]

VCV
‘seed’
Examples of words with CV-CV
i.
[rípò]

CVCV
‘belly’
lxvi
ii.
[wú pó]

CVCV
‘bone’
iii.
[mó tó]

CVCV
‘wine’
Tri-Syllabic Words
These are words with three syllables. They may include CV-CV-CV and VCV-CV syllable types.
Examples of CV-CV-CV structure are:
i.
[tù bù bu]
  
CV CV CV
‘beard’
ii.
[sú tà jã]
  
CV CV CV
‘saliva’
iii.
[tú pá há]
  
CV CV CV
‘wine’
Examples of V-CV-CV syllable structure
i.
[á ní ní]
  
V CV CV
‘eye’
lxvii
ii.
[í tú mí]
  
V CV CV
‘heart’
iii.
[ú kè tã]
  
V CV CV
‘hoe’
Examples of N-CV-CV structure
i.
[n wó pí]
  
N CV CV
‘say’
ii.
[n bí pí]
  
N CV CV
‘ask’
iii.
[n gú gí]
  
N CV CV
‘grind’
Quadri-Syllabic Words
These are words with four syllables
Examples are:
i.
[ú pé tà na]
   
V CV CV CV
‘moon’
ii.
[a kip u wa]
   
V CV CV CV
‘night’
lxviii
iii.
[á là ba rì]
   
V CV CV CV
‘story’
2.3
LEXICAL CATEGORIES IN GUNGANCHI LANGUAGE
Lexical categories are what we refer to as the parts of speech in classical
grammar. The grouping of words in a language is based on function.
Awobuluyi (1978: 1) defines lexical classes as words that behave in similar
ways in the sentence of any language. When we talk of lexical classes of words
we are talking about their categories in language. A word does not belong to any
class until it is used in a particular context. This is because one word can perform
more than one function. for convenience, however, words are traditionally
grouped into eight parts of speech, i.e. eight lexical categories which are as
follows:
i.
Nouns
ii.
Pronouns
iii.
Verbs
iv.
Adverbs
v.
Adjectives
vi.
Prepositions
lxix
vii.
Conjunctions
viii.
Exclamation or interjection
These eight lexical categories will be illustrated using Gunganchi language.
2.3.1 NOUNS
Nouns are traditionally defined a words used to name or identify a person,
animal place or thing which may include objects, qualities, actions, ideas or
concepts (Alabi, 2005: 22).
There are different types of noun:
i.
Proper noun
ii.
Common noun
iii.
Concrete noun
iv.
Abstract noun
v.
Countable noun
vi.
Uncountable noun
lxx
2.3.1.1 Proper Noun
Proper nouns are official names of people, continents, countries, etc.
Nouns this sub-class do not have the full range of determiners and they lack
article distinction (Quirk et al., 1972b: 128). Examples are:
[átũga]
‘village’
[tubu]
‘town’
[hámíá]
‘person’
2.3.1.2 Common Noun
Common nouns denote general categories of things. According to Alabi,
(2005: 23), common nouns take definite and indefinite articles as premodifiers
and also admit plural markers. He stated further that common noun is a name
given to items or people of the same kind and lacks unique reference. Examples
are:
[wapa]
[ákàtúá]
[àkùtí]
‘mat’
‘shoe’
‘duck’
2.3.1.3 Concrete Noun
Concrete nouns are nouns that can be seen, touched or measured. These
are things which have physical manifestation. Example are:
lxxi
[al]
[rìkíkì]
[ìdзakìà]
‘seed’
‘cap’
‘donkey’
2.3.1.4 Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns refer to intangible things i.e. things that cannot be seen or
touched. They have to do with feelings, emotions etc. examples of abstract
nouns are:
[meta]
[rómíé]
[ntoria]
‘fear’
‘hunger’
‘greet’
2.3.1.5 Countable Noun
These are nouns that can be counted i.e. the determiner ‘a’ or ‘an’ can be
used with them and plural marker can easily be added to their singular forms.
Examples of countable nouns are:
[ákatúá]
[íkábíá]
[wúdзíkà]
‘shoe’
‘money’
‘bag’
2.3.1.6 Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are ‘expressible’ in terms of quantity, and as a result,
predeterminers which express mass cognition e.g. much, little etc. are used
along with uncountable nouns (Alabi, 2005: 23). Examples are:
lxxii
[mátà]
[máhà]
[mósó]
‘oil’
‘salt’
‘palm wine’
2.3.2 Pronoun
Pronoun is a part of speech that is used in lieu of a noun or a noun phrase
or as a substitute for a noun or noun phrase (Alabi, 2005: 26). He also states
further that, pronoun is used instead of a noun to refer to someone or something
earlier mentioned. Pronoun as a substitute for noun does not occur with a
premodifier as a noun may do. Pronouns can be classified to their use into the
following types:
Singular
1st person
2nd person
3rd person
Subject
Object
Possessive
I
I
Myself
[n]
[mí]
[mèrìtìtã]
You
You
Yourself
[u]
[ù]
[híríítá]
He/she/it
He/she/it
Themselves
lxxiii
[n]
Singular
Subject
1st person
2nd person
3rd person
[u/nì]
Object
[ábùrìisítá]
Possessive
We
Us
Ours
[tì]
[tu]
[ábàító]
You
You
Yours
[atu]
u/mí]
[hiriíto]
They
Them
Themselves
[abla]
[bà]
[bàtúàbàtárí]
2.3.2.1 Interrogative Pronouns:
These are pronouns that are used to ask questions or seek vital
information. Example are:
[bíà]
[bídérìà]
[wa]
‘what’
‘which’
‘who’
2.3.3 Verbs
lxxiv
The word verb can be used as a general name for the head of verbal
groups. Verbs play important roles in a sentence by linking the action that has
taken place between the subject and object i.e. the (Agent) and the receiver of
an action (patient).
Awobuluyi (1978: 45) defines verb as any word functioning as predication
in a grammatical or acceptable sentence. We have two classes of verbs i.e.
transitive and the intransitive verbs.
2.3.3.1 Transitive Verbs
A transitive verb requires an obligatory complement or object. Transitive
verb is one that has a noun phrase (NP) object (Yusuf, 1997: 21). Examples of
transitive verbs are:
[rea]
[ìmágbía]
[kwá]
‘eat’
‘kill’
‘take’
2.3.3.2 Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verb is one that has no object noun phrase (NP). Examples
are:
[núa]
[ntétá]
[ùdátá]
‘go’
‘sit’
‘weep’
lxxv
2.3.4 Adverbs
Alabi (2005: 35) describes an adverb as a word that modifies or qualifies a
verb as its major grammatical assignment. It also tells more about an adjective
or another adverb. Examples of adverb are:
[sùsé]
‘very’
[sànúsànú] ‘slowly’
[kekedia] ‘soon’
2.3.5 Adjectives
Adjectives are traditionally described as words that are used to qualify
nouns i.e. they amplify the meaning of noun (Adegbija, 1987: 100). Examples of
adjectives are:
[léèta]
[lεtótòbí]
[lámãdúá]
‘red’
‘small’
‘bad’
2.3.6 Preposition
A preposition is defined as “a word which expresses a relationship between
two entitles. Yusuf (1997: 97) describes preposition as a word which relates a
noun to a verb in terms of location, direction, state, condition etc. Examples of
preposition are:
[tà]
‘in’
lxxvi
[wúnípífeí] ‘from’
[kalé]
‘on’
lxxvii
2.3.7 Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that join words, phrases, clauses or sentence
(Adegbija, 1987: 106). Alabi (2005: 38) sees conjunction as a word or a group of
words that joins words or groups of words together. Examples of conjunctions
are:
[lukù]
[tà]
[àmá]
‘or’’
‘and/with’
‘but’
2.3.8 Interjection
These are words or group of words used as exclamations to express
sudden or strong emotions (Alabi, 2005: 39).
Adegbija (1987: 108) considers interjection word as a word that expresses
emotion. Examples of interjections are:
[amídòa!]
[amídìa!]
[ah!]
2.4
‘ye!’
‘oh!’
‘ah!’
PHRASAL CATEGORIES IN GUNGANCHI LANGUAGE
Phrases are built around a ‘Skeleton’ consisting of two levels as depicted
below:
lxxviii
AP
NP
VP
PP

Phrase level
A
N
V
P

Word level
Chomsky (1986) identifies four phrase types related to lexical categories: VP, NP,
PP, Adjp which is already shown using diagram. These phrases are the maximal
projection (XPS) of the lexical heads. (Verbs, Noun, Preposition, and Adjective)
respectively. The phrasal categories in Gunganchi language are the following:
Noun phrase
Verb phrase
Adjectival phrase
Prepositional phrase
2.4.1 Noun Phrase
According to Yusuf (1997: 8), (the noun phrase (NP) is the category that
codes the participants in the event or state described by the verb. The noun
phrase is headed by the noun or pronoun (when it will no be modified). It is by
virtue of this headedness that the phrase is called noun. The head of a phrase is
the single word that can stand for the whole construction i.e. the single lexical
item that can replace the whole phrase.
lxxix
Below are examples of noun phrase (NP) in Gunganchi language:
[ríító]
[wúdзíka]
[risàkà]
‘head’
‘bag’
‘basket’
NP lexicon and satellites
i.
òbìràhá
òrìká
‘beautiful
girl’
NP
‘’a beautiful girl’
Adjp
N’
Adj’
N
Adj
òbìràká
beautiful
ii.
òrìká
girl
ùdàdàbà
òndúá
‘tall
man’
lxxx
NP
‘’a tall man’
Adjp
N’
Adj’
N
Adj
ùdàdàbà
tall
iii.
òndúá
man
òndúa na
‘the man’
2.4.2 Verb Phrase
Sockwell (1977: 40) states that, verb phrase is a cluster of words in
surface. Strings of which the nude are verbs.
According to Yusuf (1997: 21), verb phrase is traditionally called the
‘predicate’ because it has the sentence predicator namely, the verb. The verb is
the head of the verb phrase (VP). It is the lexical category that tells us what the
lxxxi
participator roles of the nominal are in the sentence i.e. the roles of the AGENT,
PATIENT, LOCATIVE, EXPERIENCE etc The verb will also indicate the syntactic
roles of nominal, either as subjects or objects. As the head of the VP, it is
obligatory present with or without its satellites. Verb satellites could be
complements or adjuncts.
Below are examples of verb phrases in Gunganchi language.
lxxxii
i.
òtúréná
òrèriama
buy
food
‘bought food’
VP
‘bought food’
V
NP
N’
N
òtúréná
buy
òrèriama
food
lxxxiii
ii.
dúlè so
must come
‘must come’
VP
‘must come’
Spec
V’
V
dúlè
must
iii.
so
come
míní pítèhí
‘will go’
2.4.3 Adjectival Phrase
An adjectival phrase does the work of an adjective Awolaja (2002: 27). It
usually qualifies or modifies a particular noun.
lxxxiv
Lamidi (2002: 73) defines it as a phrase having an adjective as its head
and which can be premodified by adverbials.
Below are examples of adjectival phrases:
i.
òbìràhá
‘very
sùsé
beautiful’
Adp
‘very beautiful’
Adj’
Adjp
Adj
Adv
òbìràhá
beautiful
sùsé
very
lxxxv
iii.
sanusanu
suse
slow
very
‘very slow’
Adjp
Spec
A’
Adj
‘very slow’
Advp
Adv’
Adv
sanusanu
suse
slow
very
lxxxvi
2.4.4 Prepositional Phrase
Jowitt and Nnamonu (1985: 228) observe that prepositions are frequently
used to form idiomatic phrases, which function as adverbial of time, place or
manner.
Wenterowd and Murray (1985: 491) defines prepositional phrase as what
is made up of a preposition, its object, or any modifier that may have the object
of preposition is the noun or the pronoun or group of words functioning as a
noun that ends the prepositional phrase.
Examples of prepositional phrase (PP) are:
lxxxvii
i.
wúnípítú
lá tiká
from
market
‘from the market’
PP
Spec
P’
P
‘from the market’
NP
N’
N
wúnípítú
from
lá tiká
market
lxxxviii
ii.
tà
lítáfì
with pen
‘with the pen’
PP
Spec
P’
P
‘with the pen’
NP
N’
N
tà
with
lítáfì
pen
lxxxix
iii.
lèpú làmákárãtá
in
school
‘in the school’
2.5 PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES IN GUNGANCHI LANGUAGE
Horrocks (1987: 31) says that phrase structure rules are simply formal
devices for representing the distribution of phrases within sentences. Phrase
structure rules are rules that describe what a grammatical sentence in a
language Cooks like (Cook 1986: 86). Yusuf (1997: 6) also opines that phrase
structure rule is a re-write, expansion rule, which displays the content of a
phrase or sentence. Tomori (1977: 67) submits that phrase structure grammar is
the one that analyzes utterances in terms of its syntactic constituents.
Phrase structure rule of the sentence is a hierarchy that proceeds from the
largest constituent to the smallest constituent in the sentence.
The following set of rules indicates that all the categories in the left
dominate all the categories in the right.
CP
-
Spec C’
C’
-
C
IP
-
Spec I’
IP
xc
I’
-
I
VP
I
-
Tens Agr.
VP
-
Spec V
V’
-
V
NP
-
Spec N’
N’
-
(Det)N(Adjp)(PP) (S’)
(NP)(PP) (Advp)
Adjp -
Spech A’
A’
-
Deg A
PP
-
Spec P’
P’
-
P
NP
We can also use tree diagram which is also called phrase marker to show or
illustrate that categories in the left dominate the categories in the right. The
above phrase structure rules can be diagrammatically represented as in the
phrase marker or free diagram below.
xci
CP
Spec
C’
C
IP
Spec
I’
I
VP
Nii
Spec
Spec
Det
N
N’
Adj
PP
Spec
P’
P
xcii
NP
CHAPTER THREE
Gunganchi Noun Phrase
3.0
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is focused on the noun phrase of Gunganchi language. it
attempts to investigate the various structures of Noun phrase, as well as the
position of the noun within the phrase in relation to its satellites. Also, the
chapter examines how noun phrase can be modified by certain constituents,
including its functional roles in the language.
3.1
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
A sentence has also been described as a group of words which makes a
statement, a command, expresses a wish, asks a question, or makes an
exclamation Yusuf (1998: 101).
A grammatical sentence must always contain at least one finite or main
verb. As pointed out by Yusuf (1998: 66), there is taxonomy of sentence types;
hence there are structural types and semantic types. The semantic types include
declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory. Along the structural
dimension, we have simple, compound and complex sentences.
3.1.1 Simple Sentence
xciii
Simple sentence contains one independent clause and no subordinate. It is
also made up of one noun phrase (NP) subject and predicate. Pink and Thomas
(1970: 12) define simple sentences as just those active declarative sentences
containing one finite verb. Examples of simple sentence are:
i.
Aúdù milàmàhà úwápu
Aúdù build
house
‘Audu built a house’
ii.
Binta atunu una mu
Binta fight mother my
‘Binta fought my mother’
iii.
mòté ukàniá
amìdía
ita
car return
me
yesterday
‘the car brought me yesterday’
xciv
i.
‘Audu built a house’
IP
Spec
I’
NP
I
Tns
N’
VP
Agr
Spec
‘Audu built a house’
V’
V
NP
Pron.
N’
N
Audu
Audu
mìlàmàhà
build
xcv
úwápu
house
ii.
‘Binta fought my mother’
IP
Spec
I’
NP
I
Tns
N’
VP
Agr
Spec
‘Binta fought my mother’
V’
V
NP
N
N’
Det
N
Binta
Binta
atunu
fight
una
mother
mu
my
3.1.2 Compound Sentence in Gunganchi
Yusuf (1997: 129) defines compound sentence as a kind of sentence
vecursion. The same clausal categories re-occur over, and are all linked by
xcvi
conjunctions e.g. ‘but’ or ‘and’ Winterowd and Murray (1985: 513) define
compound sentence as what is made up of two or more independent clauses but
no subordinate clause. Examples of compound sentence are:
i.
Àmía tà
àhúrá sú
ita
me and you came yesterday
‘you and I came yesterday’
ii.
Nmàchí
iwéría àmá ikúrúta
I like
rice but hate beans
‘I like rice but hate beans’
iii.
Àwúdía
chíkà kabitéríàmá tàrità màchínráma
You
need money
and food
‘you want money and food’
xcvii
i.
‘you and I came yesterday’
IP
Spec
I’
NP
NP
‘you and I came yesterday’
I
NP
Conj
TNS Agr
VP
Spec
V’
V
Advp
N’
N’
Adv’
Pron
Pron
Adv
Àmía tà
me and
àhúr’a
you
sú
come
xcviii
ita
yesterday
3.1.3 Complex Sentence
According to Yusuf (1997: 63), “a complex sentence is a sentence
embedded in one of the phrase categories NP or VP”.
Complex sentences are those sentences that can be analyzed as consisting
of a number of simple sentences with WH-structures such as who, which, that
and where.
Winterowd and Murray (1985: 513) define a complex sentence as a
sentence that is composed of one independent clause and one or more
subordinate clauses. Example of complex sentence are:
i.
Abubakre òndúá
Abubakre
wéyé ùlìlà
man who eat
màchínrámamu
food my
‘Abubakre is the man who ate my food’
ii.
chí
tumí lúhá bídérià
ìnkápùni
ibùà
we
kill
bite
dog
snake which
‘we killed the snake which bite the dog’
xcix
IP
Spec
I’
I
NP
TNS Agr
VP
Spec
‘we killed the snake which bite the dog’
V’
V
N’
NP
N’
N
CP
Spec
Wh
C’
C
IP
Pron
Spec
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr Spec
V
V’
NP
N’
N
chí
we
tumí láhá bídérià
kill snake which
c
ìnkápùni ibùà
bite
dog
3.2
FUNCTIONAL
CLASSIFICATION
OF
SENTENCES
IN
GUNGANCHI LANGUAGE
This section indicates that sentences can perform many functions. On the
basis of this, sentences can perform the following functions:
i.
Declarative
ii.
Imperative
iii.
Interrogative
iv.
Exclamatory
3.2.1 Declarative Sentence
Declarative sentences are statements. They normally assert the truth or
falsity of a thing Adedimeji and Alabi, 2003: 55). Examples are:
i.
Musa tsumí
hipepa
Musa kill
goat
‘Musa killed a goat’
ii.
òndúá
rea òreríamá
man
eat food
‘the man ate the food’
iii.
òndúá
òtúrènà
òrèríamá
man
buy
food
‘the man bought the food’
ci
i.
IP
Spec
I’
NP
‘Musa killed a goat
I
TNS
VP
Agr
Spec
V’
N
V
NP
N’
N
Musa
tumí
hipepa
Musa
kill
goat
cii
3.2.2 Imperative Sentence
This is used to express a command or make a request (Adedimeji and
Alabi, 2003: 56). Examples are:
i.
gbalónà
òndúá!
slap
man
‘slap the man!’
ii.
[ntétá!]
sit
‘sit!’
iii.
[nana]
come
‘come!’
3.2.3 Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence is used to make an enquiry or ask questions
which demand some sort of response from the addressee. However, it could be
rhetorical (Adedimeji and Alabi, 2003: 55). Examples are:
i.
wéyé ìmiyí mòtá?
who steal car
‘who stole the car?’
ii.
déy awúdiá
na
día?
why you
come here
‘why are you here?’
iii.
déy ikánua
why crying
báwoduá
they
ciii
‘why are they crying?’
IP
Spec
I’
NP
‘who stole the car’
I
TNS
VP
Agr
Spec
V’
N
V
NP
N’
N
wéyé
who
ti
ìmiyí
steal
mòté
car
civ
3.2.4 Exclamatory Sentence
Exclamatory sentences express story feelings of surprise (Adedimeji and
Alabi, 2003: 54) examples are:
i.
Amáà!
wúrò mu
oh!
God my
‘oh! My God’
ii.
bíà!
what
‘what!’
iii.
amídìa!
ondua
oh!
Man
‘oh! The man is good’
3.3
BASIC WORD ORDER
lebraha
good
Just as language can be classified in terms of their genetic relationships,
they can equally be classified with reference to their typological classes and
orders.
Ayodeji (1999: 51) describes basic word-order as the permissible sequence
or arrangement of lexical items to form meaningful and grammatical sentences in
a language.
Greenberg (1966) explains that word order is the manner, the subject,
verb and object co-occur in any simple declarative sentence. The idea of basic
cv
word-order stemmed from the fact that languages need to be classified on the
basis of how syntactic constituents, such as subject, verb and object, an
structured. In simple, declarative active basic sentences. Universally, six syntactic
types have been identified to be employed by languages. They are:
Subject
-
Verb
-
Object
(SVO)
Subject
-
Object
-
Verb
(SOV)
Object
-
Verb
-
Subject
(OVS)
Verb
-
Subject
-
Object
(VSO)
Verb
-
Object
-
Subject
(VOS)
Object
-
Subject
-
Verb
(OSV)
Gunganchi language operates SVO i.e. subject, verb object word order pattern.
The subject occupies the initial position indicating the first referent in the
sentence while verb is the element that assigns functional roles to the subject
and object in a construction. The object comes after the verb that assigns role to
both of them. Example to illustrate this are show below:
i.
S
V
O
wíyí
ìmiyí mote
cvi
thieves
steal car
‘the thieves stole the car’
ii.
iii.
S
V
amìdía
chíkà báchemácánìa
I
want
‘I
need
S
V
O
help
help’
O
Tola ùlìkà machíràráma mu
Tola eat
food
my
‘Tola ate my food’
cvii
i.
‘the thieves stole the car’
IP
Spec
I’
NP
I
Tns
N’
VP
Agr
Spec
‘the thieves stole the car’
V’
V
NP
N
N’
N
wíyí
ìmiyí
moté
thieves
steal
car
cviii
ii.
‘I need help’
IP
Spec
I’
NP
I
Tns
N’
VP
Agr
Spec
‘I need help’
V’
V
NP
Pron.
N’
N
amidia
I
chíkà
want
cix
báchemácánìa
help
3.4
THE NOUN PHRASE
Noun and its satellites form a noun phrase (Yusuf, 1992: 119). Thus,
Stockwell (1977: 55) defines Noun Phrase as a cluster of words in the surface
strings of which the nucleus is noun. The Noun Phrase is usually abbreviated as
NP. Also, Yusuf (1997: 8) says that, Noun Phrase is the category that codes the
participant in the event or state described by the verb.
The Noun Phrase is headed by the noun or pronoun. It is by virtue of this
headedness that the phrase is called the Noun Phrase. It is called a Noun phrase
because the word which heads it is typically a noun (Collins, 1990: 215). The
Noun Phrase is accompanied by a set of modifiers. On this premise, Yusuf (1998:
34) submits that, the Noun Phrase can contain indefinitely any number of
satellites. However, whatever it may contain, it has to have anoun head, notated
technically as N0 or plain N.
3.4.1 Noun Phrase and the Head Parameter
The concept known as “head parameter” is used to specify the order of
element in a language (Cook, 1988: 7). This is language universal. Chomsky
(1970) suggested that the position of heads could be specified once for all the
phrases in a given language. Rather than a long list of individual rules specifying
cx
the position of the head in each phrase type, a single generalization suffices:
‘heads are last in the phrase’ or ‘heads are first in the phrase’.
Therefore, in line with the ‘head parameter’, Gunganchi language falls
under the category of language in which the head of its Noun Phrase come first
before any other constituents within the phrase. In other words, in other words’
in Gunganchi language, head is the first element in th phrase; it appears on the
left of the phrase followed by other constituents which could be determiners,
adjectival phrase, prepositional and sentential phrase.
Structurally, nouns come first in Gunganchi Noun Phrase, and the satellites
of the noun follow the noun in the NP. As mentioned earlier, the satellites could
be determiners, adjectival phrase, prepositional phrase etc. which serve as its
optional modifiers or complements.
The structural forms of an NP in Gunganchi language can be formally illustrated
below:
cxi
NP

Spec N’
N’

Pron
(AP) (PP), (S’), (Conj.), (Det)
N
Also, there are instances in Gunganchi, whereby two NPs are joined together by
the conjunction ‘and’. Thus, we have the structure:
NP

NP (Conj) NP.
The above structural forms of Noun Phrase in Gunganchi in relation to its
modifications by those optional constituents are exemplified below:
3.4.2 Noun Phrase as a Single Noun Head
i.e.
(a)
(b)
(c)
NP

hipepa
úrìka
wúrò
N. Examples are:
‘goat’
‘daughter’
‘God’
cxii
(a)
NP
Spec
N’
N
hipepa
‘goat’
(b)
NP
Spec
N’
N
úrìka
‘daughter’
cxiii
(c)
NP
Spec
N’
N
wúrò
‘God’
3.4.3 Noun Phrase as a Pronoun
i.e. NP

Pron. Examples are:
(a) àwùdiá
‘you’
(b) chí
‘we’
(c)
mìchìto
‘himself’
(a)
NP
Spec
N’
Pron
àwùdiá
‘you’
cxiv
(b)
NP
Spec
N’
Pron
chí
‘we’
(c)
NP
Spec
N’
Pron
mìchito
‘himself’
3.4.4 Modification of Noun Phrase by Determiners
i.e.
NP

N
(Det). Examples are:
cxv
(a)
múlùmíí
mu
Husband
my
‘my husband’
(b)
risàkà
tàtua
basket
three
‘three basket’
(c)
òndùá
ìdàná
man
that
‘that man’
(a)
NP
‘my husband’
Spec
N’
N
Det
múlùmíí
mu
husband
my
cxvi
(b)
NP
‘three basket’
Spec
(c)
N’
N
Det
risàkà
tàtu
basket
three
NP
‘that man’
Spec
N’
N
Det
òndùá
ìdàná
man
that
cxvii
3.4.5 Modification of Noun Phrase by Adjectival Phrase
i.e.
NP
a.
òrìká nbùrùrú
girl

N
(AP). Examples are
wise
‘the wise girl’
(a)
NP
‘the wise girl’
Spec
b.
N’
N
AP
òrìká
nbùrùrú
girl
wise
ípàkúlú
‘akàmi
tortoise
big
‘the big tortoise’
cxviii
(b)
NP
‘the big tortoise’
Spec
N’
c.
ndóá lebraha
man good
‘the good man’
(c)
NP
N
AP
ípàkúlú
tortoise
àkàmi
big
‘the good man’
Spec
N’
N
AP
ndóá
lebraha
man
good
cxix
3.4.6 Modification of NP by Prepositional Phrase
i.e. NP

N’
(PP). Examples are:
(a) ndóa wùnìpítèi
láchìká
man from
market
‘a man from the market’
NP
Spec
N’
‘a man from the market’
N’
PP
N
P’
P
NP
N’
N
ndóa
man
wùnìpítèi
from
láchìká
market
cxx
(b)
úbì ta
lítàfì
child with pen
‘the child with the pen’
NP
Spec
N’
‘the child with the pen’
N’
PP
N
P’
P
NP
N’
N
úbì
child
ta
with
lítàfì
pen
cxxi
(c)
ríámá lèpu úkúlu
food in
room
‘the food in the room’
NP
Spec
N’
‘the food in the room’
N’
PP
N
P’
P
NP
N’
N
ríámá
food
lèpu
in
úkúlu
room
cxxii
3.4.7 Modification of Noun Phrase by Complementizer Phrase
The complementizer phrase is embedded inside the Noun Phrase, and it is
usually introduced by a complementizer bídérìa which stands for ‘which’ pònúya
‘where; and wéyé which stand for who.
The structure of this type of NP is: NP
Examples are:
(a)
ríamá bídérìa
ìntóa
food which
burn
‘the food which burn’
cxxiii

N’ (CP)
NP
Spec
N’
N’
N
‘the food which burn’
CP
Spec
C’
C
IP
Wh-
I
TNS
VP
Agr
V’
V
ríamá
food
bídérìa
which
ìntóa
burn
cxxiv
(b)
wapu
púnúya
àmídia
house
where
I
‘the house where I slept’
NP
Spec
láchàchá
sleep
N’
N’
N
‘the house where I slept’
CP
Spec
C’
C
Wh-
IP
NP
N’
wapu
house
púnúya
where
I
VP
Pron TNS
Agr
àmídia
I
V
láchàchá
sleep
cxxv
V’
(c)
wíhí
wéyé wo
thief who die
‘the thief who died’
NP
Spec
N’
N’
N
‘the thief who died’
CP
Spec
C’
C
IP
Wh-
I
TNS
VP
Agr
V’
V
wíhí
thief
wéyé
who
wo
die
cxxvi
3.4.8 NPs joined by the conjunction
i.e.
NP
NP
(Conj.) NP. Examples are:
(a)
Muazu
tà
Bagudu
Mauza
and
Bagudu

‘Mauza and Bagudu’
NP
NP
Conj
NP
N’
N’
N
N
Muaza
and
‘Mauza and Bagudu’
Bagudu
cxxvii
(b)
hipepa
mù
tà
ìpana
Goat
my
and
cat
‘my goat and the cat’
NP
NP
N’
Conj
Det
N’
N
(c)
NP
N
hipepa
mù
tà
ìpana
goat
my
and
cat
íkònua
lukù rílóa
beans
or
yam
‘beans or yam’
cxxviii
‘my goat and the cat’
NP
NP
Conj
NP
N’
N’
N
N
íkònua
lukù
rílóa
beans
or
yam
3.5
‘beans or yam’
FUNCTIONS OF NOUN PHRASE IN GUNGANCHI
The Noun Phrase is one of the important constituents of grammatical
structure based on its multiple functions (Collins, 1990: 215). In Gunganchi
language, the Noun Phrase is the element of a sentence which can perform the
following functions:
(a)
Subject of the predicate
(b)
Direct object of the sentence
(c)
Indirect object of the verb
(d)
Complement of preposition
cxxix
3.5.1 Noun Phrase as Subject of the Predicate
This is when an NP functions as the agent of an action in a sentence.
Examples are:
a.
udunua mu ínsámíá
ndóa
wife
man
my call
‘my wife called the man’
In the above sentence, the NP ‘udunua mu’ is functioning as the subject of
the sentence.
cxxx
IP
‘my wife called the man’
Spec
I’
NP
Spec
I
N’
N
VP
TNS Agr
Spec
Det
V’
V
NP
N’
N
(b)
udunua
mu
ínsámíá
ndóa
wife
my
call
man
wugbárí kìnama
intabia
hunter
shoot
‘the hunter shot the monkey’
hiuma
monkey
cxxxi
The NP ‘wugbárí kìnama’ functions as the subject of the sentence.
IP
‘the hunter shot the monkey’
Spec
NP
N’
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
Spec
N
V’
V
NP
N’
N
wugbárí kìnama
intabia
hunter
shoot
cxxxii
hiuma
monkey
(c)
lóhá inkápuní
ibùà mu
snake
bite dog my
‘the snake bite my dog’
The NP ‘loha’ functioning as the subject of the sentence.
IP
‘the snake bite my dog’
Spec
NP
N’
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
Spec
N
V’
V
NP
N’ Det
N
lóhá
snake
cxxxiii
inkápuní ibùà
mu
bite
my
dog
3.5.2 Noun Phrase as Apposition of Subject
This is a function performed by an NP when phrase, such that the
following NP is referring to its antecedent (i.e. that same subject NP before it).
Examples in Gunganchi are given below:
(a)
Fatimah
òrìká òbìràhá
ínwí
Fatimah
girl
drink palmwine
beautiful
mòsó
‘Fatimah, the beautiful girl drank palmwine’
In the above sentence, the NP òrìká obiraha which stands for ‘beautiful
girl’ is functioning as the opposition of the preceeding subject NP ‘Mr Hazan’.
cxxxiv
IP
‘Fatimah, the beautiful girl drank palmwine
Spec
I’
NP
N’
I
N’
N
VP
TNS Agr
Adj
V’
V
NP
N’
N
Fatimah
òrìká
òbìràhá
ínwí
mòsó
Fatimah
girl
beautiful
drink
palmwine
cxxxv
(b)
úndúkàmí ndoá letótòbí
nkúnìa
wapu
chief
man small
sell
house
‘the chief, a small man sold the house’
In the sentence, the NP ‘ndoá letótobí’ is functioning subject NP.
IP
‘the chief, a small man sold the house’
Spec
I’
NP
N’
I
N’
N
VP
TNS Agr
Adj
V’
V
NP
N’
N
úndúkàmí
chief
(c)
ndoá
man
letótòbí
small
nkúnìa
sell
Mr. Hazan, wugbárìkinama ímúgbá íná
cxxxvi
wapu
house
Mr. Hazan hunter
kill animal
‘Mr. Hazan, the hunter killed the animal’
In the above sentence, the NP wugbárìkinama which stand for ‘hunter’ is
functioning as the opposition of the preceeding subject NP ‘Mr. Hazan’.
IP
‘Mr Hazan, the hunter killed the animal’
Spec
I’
NP
N’
Det
I
N’
N
N
VP
TNS Agr
V’
V
NP
N’
N
Mr
Hazan wugbárìkinama ímúgbá
íná
Mr
Hazan
hunter
kill
animal
3.5.3 Noun Phrase as a Direct Object of the Verb in a Sentence
cxxxvii
Examples of NPs which receive the action in a sentence in Gunganchi are
giving below:
(a)
ùtúwà
mu
òtùrínà
wápu
father
my
buy
house
‘my father bought the house’
The NP wápu in the above sentence is functioning as the direct object
which receives the action from the verb òtùrénà, meaning buy.
IP
‘my father bought the house’
Spec
I’
NP
N
I
Det TNS
VP
Agr
V’
V
ùtúwà
father
(b)
mu
my
Hammed
òtùrínà
buy
NP
wápu
house
arihe lèchá úbì
cxxxviii
Hammed
sing new song
‘Hammed sang the new song’
IN the above sentence, the NP lèchá úbì functions as the direct object of
the verb ‘arihe’ which means ‘sing’.
IP
‘Hammed sang the new song’
Spec
I’
NP
N’
I
VP
TNS Agr
N
V’
V
NP
Det
N
úbì
Hammed
arihe
lèchá
Hammed
sing
new
(c)
ahúráímíhí íkabíá
cxxxix
song
You
steal money
‘you steal the money’
The NP íkabíá which means ‘money’ in the sentence above is functioning
as the direct object which receives the action.
IP
‘you steal the money’
Spec
NP
N’
N
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
V
NP
N’
N
ahúrá
ímíhí
íkabíá
You
steal
money
3.5.4 Noun Phrase as Indirect Object of the Verb
cxl
Examples are:
(a)
òndùá
ímúgbá
hipepa
lèpú átuà
man
kill
goat
in
market
‘the man killed the goat in the market’
In the above sentence, the NP átuà is used as an indirect object of the
verb ímúgbá which means ‘kill’.
cxli
IP
‘the man killed the goat in the market’
Spec
NP
N’
I’
I
TNS Agr
VP
Spec
V’
N
V
NP
N
PP
P’
P
NP
N’
N
òndùá
ímúgbá hipepa
lèpú
átuà
man
kill
in
market
goat
cxlii
(b)
báwoduá
píánìa mallam
íkabíá
they
give mallam
money
‘they gave mallam the money’
The NP íkabíá in the above sentence functions as the indirect object of the
verb ‘píánìa’ give.
IP
Spec
I’
NP
N’
I
TNS Agr
N
báwoduá
they
‘they gave mallam the money’
VP
Spec
V’
V
píánìa
give
NP
N’
N’
N
N
mallam
mallam
íkabíá
money
cxliii
(c)
amídia
ìntúkià
izàkàra
ta
rígùla
I
pierced
cock
with knife
‘I pierced the cock with a knife’
IP
‘I pierced the cock with a knife’
Spec
I’
NP
N’
I
TNS Agr
N
VP
Spec
V’
V
NP
N
PP
P’
P
NP
N’
N
amídia
I
ìntúkià izàkàra
pierced cock
cxliv
ta
with
rígùla
knife
3.5.5 Noun Phrase as a Compliment of Preposition
Examples are:
(a)
baíwoduá
ínwí
tà
hínúà
they
drink with calabash
‘they drank with a calabash’
In the sentence above, the NP hínúà which means ‘calabash’ is functioning
as the object or compliment of the preposition tà which means ‘with’.
cxlv
IP
‘they drank with a calabash’
Spec
I’
NP
N’
I
TNS Agr
VP
Spec
N
V’
V
PP
P’
P
NP
N’
N
baíwoduá
ínwí
tà
hínúà
they
drink
with
calabash
(b)
ndóa ímúmìnìá
òrìká lèpu làmákárántá
cxlvi
man beat
girl
in
school
‘the man beat the girl in the school’
In the sentence above, the underlined NP làmákárántá functions as the
object of preposition lèpu which stands for in.
cxlvii
IP
‘the man beat the girl in the school’
Spec
NP
N’
I’
I
TNS Agr
VP
Spec
V’
N
V
NP
N
PP
P’
P
NP
N’
N
ndóa
ímúmìnìá
òrìká lèpu làmákárántá
man
beat
girl
(c)
Sulaiman
nánà wùnìpíteì
in
láchìká
cxlviii
school
Sulaiman
come from
market
‘Sulaiman came from the market’
In the sentence above, NP láchìká which means ‘market’ has been used as
the object of the preposition wùnìpíteì means ‘from’
IP
‘Sulaiman came from the market’
Spec
I’
NP
N’
I
TNS Agr
N
VP
Spec
V’
V
PP
P’
P
NP
N’
N
Sulaiman
Sulaiman
nánà
wùnìpíteì
come
from
CHAPTER FOUR
cxlix
láchìká
market
Transformational Processes in Gunganchi Language
4.0
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the transformational processes in Gunganchi language will
be discussed to show how the movement theory (move ), discussed earlier in
chapter one apply to noun phrase in Gunganchi. The processes to be examined
or discussed are, Reflexivization, Passivization, and Focus Construction.
4.1
TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES IN GUNGANCHI
According to Bussman (1996: 490), transformational process is described
as a formal operation which mediates between the deep structure and the
surface structure ofsentences.
Going by the position of Sell (1985: 15), a transformational grammar takes
a lexicon and PS-rules and auguments. The sentence with transformations which
take the structures created by PS-rules and transform them into new structures.
Also, Lamidi (2000: 27) says that, transformations are devices used to
change the form of one linguistic structure to another form.
In his own view, Kimbal (1973: 35) states that the theory of
transformation is described as the theory of how transformations are constructed
cl
and of the conventions which govern their application in transformational
derivations in natural language.
Yusuf (1992: 138) define transformations as the way we relate some
sentence to some other basic sentences’ claiming that some sentence types are
formed or derived from the basic. An active sentence can be changed to passive
one or a simple declarative sentence to interrogative through the use of
transformations.
Transformations perform three major functions in a sentence structure;
they can delete formatives which have earlier occurred at the deep structure of a
sentence. They can involve substitution; a word replaces another in the context
of recurrence. They can move element from one position to another in sentences
(Lamidi 2000: 28).
Radford (1988: 419) emphasizes that movement rule has important
consequences in the over all organization of the model grammars. Movement
presupposes that there are two different levels of syntactic structure: deep and
surface structures. Deep structure serves as an input to the movement rules and
surface structure serves as the output of the movement rule. Surface structure is
cli
generated
from
the
deep
structure
by
the
application
of
movement
transformation called ‘move-alpha’ Radford (1989: 419).
Cook (1988: 21) describes the principle of movement as a transformation
that has subsumed many separate rules previously known as transformations.
Movement is a major syntactic process where an item is moved from its original
site to another site and the transformations that involve movement are: focusing,
question
formation,
passivization,
reflexivization,
affiox-hopping
and
pronominalization (Yusuf 1992: 138).
According to Cook (1988: 31), transformation is represented in a tree
diagram known as the T-model as shown below:
D-Structure
Transformation
S-Structure
PF Component
LF Component
Move alpha is applied to the deep structure of a basic sentence to generate the
clii
derived form in the surface structure without changing the meaning of the basic
sentence. Elements in the deep structure move to an empty place. Any
constituent in a sentence can be moved anywhere to generate derivational
sentence constrained by subjancency principle.
An element could be moved either to the ‘Y’ variable or to the ‘X’ variable.
When moved element goes to the left position, it is called left gapping and when
moved to the right position, it is called right gapping (Haegman, 1994).
X

Move
Y
Movement theory within the GB theory is assumed to involve three things which
are:
(i)
Extraction site
(ii)
Landing site and
(iii)
Intervening gap (Yusuf, 1997).
Extraction site explains the point where a constituent is moved from NP,
VP, WH or INFL. Landing site explains where an element is positioned. The
cliii
movement could be either by adjunction or substitution. Intervening gap explains
the position that is left empty through the introduction of the co-indexation (ti)
co-referential (ei) items (Yusuf, 1997: 128) According to Radford (1985: 401),
movement in move-alpha involves moving an NP, VP, INFL and WH phrases.
These phrases constitute the types of movement in Government and Binding
Theory.
4.2
QUESTION FORMATION
Generally speaking, question formation entails the changing of declarative
sentences to interrogative sentence. Questions are primarily used to seek
information or lack of information on a specific point and to request the listener
to supply this information verbally. Therefore, a question is asked to get more
fact
about
a
particular
thing
(Quirk,
1972:
386).
In Gunganchi language, we have three types of question formation which
are:
(i)
WH-questions
(ii)
Yes/No questions
(iii)
Echo-questions
But our attention shall be restricted to Wh-question and Yes/No question.
cliv
4.2.1 WH-Question
The WH-question formation makes use of the WH interrogative marker
along with ‘how’ in deriving question sentence from already existing sentence.
According to Yusuf (1997: 75), the content word questions is more
popularly known as WH-questions, on accounts of using question markers like
who, what, why, where, when, which and also how. This can be represented in
Gunganchi language as: wéyé (who), déyà (what),, iriwoya (when), inèná (how).
One way of thinking about WH-question is as follows: The phrase about
which were asking a question is first replaced by a suitable Wh-word or whphrase. Then that wh-word or phrase moves to a special clause-initial position
leacing behind it a gap i.e. the clause structure. What constitutes a suitable Whword depends on the category and properties of an original phrase.
One common way of forming wh questions in languages is to move a whexpression toa special clause-initial position. However, not all languages from
Wh-questions by moving the wh-expression at all. Examples of wh-questions in
Gunganchi language include:
(1a) Audu ùlìkà machíraráma
Audu eat food
‘Audu ate your food’
dèmu
yours
clv
Derived sentence
(b)
wéyé ùlìkà machíraráma
Q-m eat food
‘who ate my food?’
mu?
my
Basic sentence
(2a) Danjuma
àtúna làviró
Danjuma
go
river
‘Danjuma went to the river’
Derived sentence
(2b) wéyé
àtúná làviró?
Q-m
go
river
‘who went to the river?’
clvi
Basic sentence
(3a) awua ná
diá mòsó máchu
he
came here drink wine
‘he came here to drink wine’
Derived sentence
(3b) déy àwúdía
na
día?
why you came here
‘why are you here?’
The above derived examples can be phrase marked below:
1.
CP
Spec
Wh-
C’
‘who ate my food?’
C
IP
Spec
I’
NP
[ti]
I
VP
TNS AGR Spec
[past]
V’
V
wéyé
NP
N’
Spec
N
Det
ùlìkà machíraráma mu?
who
eat
clvii
food
my
2.
CP
Spec
WH-
‘who went to the river’
C’
C
IP
Spec
I’
NP
I
N’
TNS
[ti]
[past]
VP
AGR
V’
V
NP
N’
N
wéyé
who
àtúná
go
clviii
làviró?
river
3.
CP
Spec
Wh-
C’
‘why did you came here?’
C
IP
Spec
I’
NP
[ti]
I
VP
TNS AGR Spec
[past]
NP
V’
V
Adv
na
came
día?
here
N’
N
P
déy
why
àwúdía
you
4.2.2 YES/NO Question
Lamidi (2000: 119) claims that, Yes/No questions are also referred to as
polar questions and are derived from declarative statements. A general rule for
the formation of Yes/No questions in English language is to move the first
member of the INFL to the sentence initial position.
In Gunganchi language, a Yes/No question is derived by inserting the
special question marker “dému” at the end of the basic sentence and eclosing it
clix
with
a
question
mark.
Examples
are
given
Basic sentence
1.
Muazu
ùlùkà machíraráma
Muazu
eat food
‘Muazu ate my food’
mu
my
Derived sentence
Muazu
ùlìkà machíraráma
Muazu
eat
food
‘did Muazu eat food?’
dému?
Q-m
Basic sentence
2.
amidia
chiká báchèmacaniá
I
want help
‘I need help’
Derived sentence
amidia
chiká báchèmacaniá
I
want help
‘did you need help?’
Basic sentence
3.
chirù mu udiéná
town my this
‘this is my town’
Derived sentence
chirú mu udiéná
demu?
town my this
Q-m
‘is this my town?’
dému?
Q-m
The sentence are phrase-marked below:
1.
CP
‘did Muazu eat food?’
clx
as
follows:
Spec
C’
Ø
IP
Spec
C
I’
I
VP
NP
TNS AGR
V’
N’
V
NP
Pron
N’
N
Muazu
Muazu
ùlìkà machíraráma
eat
food
clxi
dému?
QM
2.
CP
‘did you need help?’
Spec
C’
Ø
IP
Spec
C
I’
I
VP
NP
TNS AGR
V’
N’
V
NP
Pron
N’
N
amidia
I
chiká báchèmacaniá
want help
clxii
dému?
QM
1.
CP
‘Abubakre built a house?’
Spec
C’
C
IP
Spec
NP
N’
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
N
V
NP
N’
N
Abubakre
Abubakre
mìlàmàhà
build
clxiii
wapu
house
2.
CP
‘you climbed this mountain?’
Spec
C’
C
IP
Spec
NP
N’
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
N
V
Àwudía
you
mátì
climb
clxiv
NP
N’
Spec
N
Det
kálò núná
mountain this
3.
CP
‘you killed what?’
Spec
C’
C
IP
Spec
NP
N’
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
N
V
NP
N’
N
àwúdía
you
ímúgbá
kill
clxv
déya?
what
4.3 Reflexivization
Reflexive pronoun has the same referent with the subject NP in the object
position; this is indicated by co-indexation, that is, attaching indetical subscript
letters called indices to the subject and object. As the name implies, these
pronouns reflect another nominal element of the sentence usually the subject,
with which it is in co-referential relation. As pointed out by Crystal (1992: 330),
reflexivization is a construction whereby the subject nad object refer to the same
entity Quirk (1972: 133) also defines reflexvization as reflexive pronoun that
ends in ‘self’ for the singular and ‘selves’ for the plural. These affixes are added
to the determiner possessives myself, itself, herself, themselves. In GB theory,
reflexive pronouns are called anaphors. Anaphors are phrasal categories that
require antecedent NPs.
Below are examples of reflexivization in Gunganchi language:
Basic sentence:
(1)
ibùà ínkápúní
dog
bite
ibùà
dog
‘dog bite dog’
Reflexivized sentence
ibùà ínkápúní
mìchíto
clxvi
dog bite
itself
‘dog bite itself’
Basic sentence
(2) òndóa ímúgbá
òndóa
man kill
man
‘the man killed the man’
Reflexivized sentence
òndóa ímúgbá
mìchíto
man kill
himself
‘the man killed himself’
Basic sentence
(3) bàwónduá wámánì
they
follow
‘they followed they’
bàwóduá
they
Reflexivized sentence
bàwóduá
wámánì
bàwóduá
they
follow
they
‘they followed they’
Reflexivized sentence
bàwónduá wámánì
bàtúàbàtárí
they
follow
themselves
‘they followed themselves’
The reflexivized sentences are phrase marked below:
1.
IP
‘the dog bite itself’
clxvii
Spec
NP
N’
N
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
V
NP
N’
Pron
ibùà
dog
ínkápúní
bite
clxviii
mìchíto
itself
2.
IP
‘the man killed himself’
Spec
NP
N’
N
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
V
NP
N’
Pron
òndóa
man
ímúgbá
kill
mìchíto
himself
clxix
3.
IP
‘they followed themselves’
Spec
I’
NP
N’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
N
V
NP
N’
Pron
bàwónduá
they
4.4
Pron
wámánì
follow
bàtúàbàtárí
themselves
FOCUS CONSTRUCTION
Stockwell (1977: 157) considers focus as a way of introducing special
marking into the surface structure of the element or constituent that is being
focused. Therefore, he equates focus with prominence being the part of the
message that is emphasized.
clxx
Also, Payne (1997: 267) opines that focus is a term applied to one element
of every clause. Focusing rules introduce special marking into the surface
structure to set off some elements as new or important: they assign prominence
to that part of the message which the speaker wants to place in the foreground
and they detress that part of the message which merely provides continuity or
which confirms the presuppositions that are shared.
In Gunganchi language, the special focus marker is ‘su’. In the language,
the construction of focused sentence is done by moving the element or
constituent (usually an NP) to be emphasized from its original logical position to
the sentence-initial slot and then introducing the focus marker immediately after
it. Examples to buttress this syntactic claim were cited as follows:
Basic sentence
Garba ùtúre rehora
lú
láchìká
Garba buy meat
in
market
‘Garba bought meat in the market’
Derived sentence
Subject NP Focus
Garba
su
ùtúre
ríhàrómí
Garba
Foc[ti]
buy
meat
‘it was Garba that bought meat in the market’
clxxi
lú
in
láchìká
market
FP
Spec
NP
‘it was Garba that bought meat in the market’
F’
F
N’
IP
Spec
N
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
V’
V
PP
NP
N’
P’
P
N
NP
N’
N
Garba
Garba
su
FM
ùtúre
buy
clxxii
ríhàrómí lú
meat in
láchìká
market
4.4.1 Direct Object NP Focus
ríàlómi
su
Garba òtúré
láchìká
meat
FOC Garba buy[ti]
market
‘it was meat that Garba bought in the market’
FP
Spec
NP
‘it was meat that Garba bought in the market’
F’
F
IP
N’
Spec
N
NP
N’
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
V
NP
N
N’
N
ríàlómi
meat
su
FM
Garba
Garba
òtúré
buy
clxxiii
láchìká
market
4.4.2 Indirect Object NP Focus
láchìká
su
Garba ùtúre ríàlómi
lá [ti]
market
FOC Garba buy meat
in
‘it was in the market that Garba bought meat from’
FP
Spec
NP
‘it was in the market that Garba bought meat from’
F’
F
IP
N’
Spec
N
NP
N’
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
V’
PP
N
V
NP
P’
P
láchìká
market
su
FM
Garba
Garba
ùtúre
buy
clxxiv
ríàlómi lá
meat in
4.4.3 Verb Focusing
ùturé su
Garba ùturé rehorua
lachika
buying FOC Garba buy meat
market
‘it was buying that Garba bought meat in the market’
FP
Spec
NP
‘it was buying Garba that bought meat in the market’
F’
F
IP
N’
Spec
N
NP
N’
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
V
NP
N
ùturé
buying
su
FM
Garba
Garba
N’
N’
N
N
ùturé rehorua
buy meat
clxxv
lachika
market
4.5
PASSIVIZATION
The passive construction is a demoting of the logical subject to allow the
speaker focus on the object NP. A passive is formed fro m its active sentence.
Yusuf (1997) explains the processes involved in passivization as follows:
first, by moving the subject NP to the end of the sentence and inserting ‘by’
before it; second, moving the NP following the verb into subject position and
putting the verb in participle form. Example of passivization in Gunganchi
language include:
Basic sentence
1.
bàwóduá
mìlàmàhà
wapu
they
builf
house
‘they built the house’
Derived sentence
wapu
mìlàmàhà
tacha àbàtàtí
house
build
by
them
‘the house was built by them’
Basic sentence
clxxvi
2.
wíyí
bàwóduá
thieves they
ìmiyí híná
steal cow
‘the thieves stole the cow’
Derived sentence
hina bàwóduá
ìmiyi tàchá wìyí
cow
steal by
they
thieves
‘the cow were stolen by thieves’
Basic sentence
3.
òndúa ìmiyi hipepa
man steal goat
‘the man stole the goat’
Derived sentence
hipepa
ìmiyi tàchá ondua
goat
steal by
man
‘the goat was stolen by the man’
clxxvii
1
IP
Spec
NP
N’
N
‘the house was built by them’
I’
I
TNS Agr
VP
V’
PP
V
P’
P
NP
N’
Pron
wapu
house
mìlàmàhà
build
tacha
by
àbàtàtí
them
clxxviii
2.
IP
Spec
NP
N’
N
‘the cow were stolen by thieves’
I’
I
TNS Agr
Subject
NP
hina
cow
VP
V’
PP
V
P’
P
NP
N’
N’
Pron
Pron
bàwóduá
they
ìmiyi tàchá
steal by
wìyí
thieves
clxxix
3.
IP
Spec
I’
NP
N’
‘the goat was stolen by the man’
I
TNS Agr
N
VP
V’
PP
V
P’
P
NP
N’
Pron
hipepa
goat
ìmiyi tàchá
steal by
ondua
man
clxxx
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0
INTRODUCTION
This set to summarize the research findings on Gunganchi, draw the
conclusion and offer some recommendations for further researches.
5.1
SUMMARY
This work has examined and discussed the Noun Phrase of Gunganchi
language. Genetically, Gunganchi language belongs to Niger-Kordofanian family
of languages. Both the language and its speaker are popularly referred to by
non-native speakers as Gunganchi.
The language is spoken as first language in the community of Yauri local
government area of Kebbi state.
The speakers of Gunganchi are majorly Muslims and their major
occupation is farmer.
The analysis of Gunganchi grammar were carried out through the use of
Ibadan 400 words item, frame techniques and oral interview to ensure copious,
ample illuminating data for analysis. A review of the chosen framework led us to
adopt the X-bar theory for the analysis of the language.
clxxxi
The chapter two of this work discussed the phono-syntax of Gunganchi.
Syntactically, Gunganchi language exihibits Subject Verb Object (SVO) word
order in its basis sentence, and lexically, noun and pronoun are commonly found
as independent lexical categories.
The third chapter of this work is focused on Gunganchi noun phrase, the
structure of Gunganchi language, basic word order in Gunganchi and position of
noun and its satellites, modification of noun phrase and function of noun phrase
in Gunganchi language. The fourth chapter of this researcher examined various
transformational processes in Gunganchi language, such as Question Formation,
Reflexivization, Focus Construction and Passivization. Finally, the fifth chapter is
the summary, observations in the study, conclusion of our findings and
recommendations for further researches in the language.
5.2
OBSERVATION
In the analysis of Gunganchi language, it was observed that Gunganchi
language is an isolating language. Also, apart from that, the
language also operate Subject Verb Object (SVO) pattern. It was also observed
at the grammatical level that there is head initial parameter that is Noun always
clxxxii
come first in Gunganchi Noun Phrase, Verb in Verb Phrases, preposition in
Prepositional Phrase and Adjective in Adjective Phrase. It also observed that
Gunganchi Noun Phrase can be modify by Adjective, determiner, preposition and
perform many functions such as subject, object, indirect object and complement
of a sentence at phonological level. The language operates register tone and
open syllable pattern.
5.3
CONCLUSION
Man depends largely on his ability to interact with fellow human beings
and he uses languages to achieve this, Gunganchi language like any other
language, serves as a means through which its speakers express their feelings.
This research work looked critically into Gunganchi language with a view to
analyzing and describing Noun Phrases in the language using Government and
Binding Theory.
5.4
RECOMMENDATIONS
clxxxiii
Despite the fact that, no research work has been carried out on Gunganchi
language, this research has been able to produce what we can refers to as
pioneer work that can serve as reference for further studies on the language.
Therefore, we recommend that, further linguistics researches should be
carried out on the aspects of semantics, pragmatics, as well as lexicography for
the language.
Also, more research works should be done by authors, so as to produce
the orthography for the language as well as textbooks in Gunganchi language for
both primary and secondary studies.
clxxxiv
REFERENCES
Adegbija, E. (ed.) Effective Study Skill and Use of English. Ilorin. Nigeria:
Unilorin Press.
Awobuluyi, O. (1973). Essential of Yoruba Grammar: Oxford University
Press,
Nigeria.
Bussman, H. (1996). Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistic.
New
York: Routledge Publishers.
Crystal, D. (1994). An Encyclopedia Dictionary of Language and
Languages.
London: Blackwell.
Cook,
V.J.
(1988).
Chomsky’s Universal Grammar: An Introduction to
Sentence Structure. Oxford, UK, Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Chomsky, N. (1986). KNolwedge of Language: Its Nature, Origin and Use. New
York: Praeger.
Chumsky, N. (1986a). Barriers. Cambridge. Mass: M.I.T Press.
Close, T. G. (1975). Reference Grammar for Student of English. U.K Longman.
Greenberg (1968). Universal of Language. Cambridge, Mass: M.I.T Press.
Horrock, G. (1987). Generative Grammar. London: Longman Group.
clxxxv
Haegman (1991). Introduction to Government and Binding Theory. Oxford:
Blackwell.
Hyman, L. M. (1975). Phonology Theory and Practice. UK Holt Reinhart
and
Winestone.
Ladeforged, P. (1975). A Course in Phonetics. Harcourt Brace and
Company.
Lamidi, M. T. (2000). Aspect of Chomskyan Grammar. Oyo Nigeria: Emman
Publication.
Malmjaer, K. (1991). The Linguistics Encyclopedia. London. Routledge.
Oyebade, F. (1998). A Course in Phonology. Ilorin: Nigeria. University of
Ilorin
Press.
Radford, A. (1988). Transformational Grammar: A First Course.
Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.
Sanusi, I. O. (1996). Introducing the Linguist and Linguistic. Ilorin: Jimson
Publishers.
Sell, P. (1985). Lectures on Contemporary Syntactic Theories. Center for
the
Study of Language and Information: Standard Junior University.
Stockwell, R. P. (1977). Foundation of Syntactic Theory. New Jersey,
Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall Inc.
clxxxvi
Tomori, S. H. (1977). The Morphology and Syntax of Present Day English. An
Introduction. London: Heinemann.
Welmers, P. (1959). Structure of African Languages. London: Longman
Press.
Yusuf, O. (1997). Transformational Generative Grammaer: An Intrdouction.
Ijebu-Ode, Nigeria: Sebiotimo Publication.
Yusuf, O. (1998). Fundamental of Syntax and the Study of Nigerian Languages.
Ijebu-Ode, Sebiotimo Publication.
clxxxvii
APPENDIX
400 LEXICAL ITEMS IN GUNGANCHI LANGUAGE
1.
2.
3.
head
hair (head)
eye
rishitán
chino
áníní
[ríító]
[tínó]
[áníní]
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12
13.
14.
15.
16.
ear
nose
mouth
teeth
tongue
jaw
chin
beard
neck
breast (female)
heart
belly (external)
stomach (internal)
àtóa
olua
únú
ání
rílùmia
ágìamòà
ágìamòà
tùbùbu
rótúá
rínùyan
ítumú
rípò
útumbi
[àtɔa]
[olua]
[únú]
[ání]
[rílumia]
[ágìamòà]
[ágìamòà]
[tùbúbu]
[rótúá]
[rínùjã]
[ítúmú]
[rípò]
[útũmbi]
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
navel
back
arm
hand
nail
buttocks
penis
vagina
thigh
leg
knee
body
skin
bone
blood
saliva
wire
feaces
food
water
ípúlo
úmálúá
íyókwá
útahen
súkùmbà
trìpìà
ríxómbá
írícha
ákáshá
àkanà
ákùmun
yítáú
únwá
wúpó
máyín
sútàyan
tupaha
chíbìni
ríamá
mómun
[ípúlɔ]
[úmálúá]
[íjúkwá]
[útahẽ]
[sùkũmbà]
[írípìà]
[rízõmbá]
[írítsá]
[ákáá]
[àkanà]
[ákùmũ]
[jítáú]
[úŋwá]
[wúpò]
[májĩ]
[sútàjã]
[túpáhá]
[tíbìni]
[ríámá]
[mómũ]
clxxxviii
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
soup/sauce
meat
fat
fish
oil
salt
wine/beer
palm wine
yam
cassava
guinea corn
millet
maize
beans
pepper
okra
plantain
banana
orange
groundnut
kolanut
tobacco
cotton
tána
ríhàlómi
mánchà
íshànbi
mánchà
maha
mótó
moso
rílóa
rírógó
túrìè
[táná]
[ríhàlómi]
[mántà]
[íãbí]
[mántà]
[máhà]
[mótó]
[mósó]
[rílóa]
[rirogo]
[túrì]
rímósàró
íkònua
ígbágwá
túkúnàbu
ayaba
ayaba
rílemun
agbana
ágoroa
ùtábá
túgbéríá
[rímósàró]
[íkònua]
[ígbágwá]
[túkúnàbu]
[ajaba]
[ajaba]
[rílemun]
[agbana]
[ágoroa]
[ùtábá]
[túgbéríá]
60.
oil palm
manja
[mãʤà]
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69
70.
71.
72.
73.
seed
grass
tree
leaf
bark (of tree)
that
thorn
stick
firewood
charcoal
fire
smoke
ashes
alo
túpáwá
úchin
tububa
túbéká
[alɔ]
[túpáwá]
[útũ]
[tubúbà]
[túbéká]
chiba
ìdànga
achìn
ingbo
údèrìmí
ríyún
mátùn
[tíbá]
[ìdãga]
[atĩ]
[ĩgbo]
[údrìmí]
[ríjũ]
[mátũ]
74.
water pot
ríbùlùku mómòrihe
[ríbùlùku mɔmɔrihe]
clxxxix
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
cooking
calabash
grinding stone
mortar
knife
hoe
axe
matchet
ímùnrí
hínúà
ùtárìa múnámáká
útún
rígùla
úkètan
rúma
rigùla
[ìmũrí]
[hínúà]
[ùtárìa múnámáká]
[útũ]
[rígùla]
[úktã]
[ruma]
rigùla]
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
spear (war)
bow (weapon)
snow
iron (metal)
mat
basket
ijima
ríbàkà
úbúdá
úrómà
wapa
[iʤma]
[ríbàkà]
[úbúdá]
[úrómà]
[wapa]
[risàkà]
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
bag
wújíkà
rope
úki
needle
íberia
thread
ísùlíkí
cloth (material)
aba
rope/gown/smock/(man’s) hítógó
hat/cap
rìkíkì
shoe
ákàtúá
money
íkábíá
[wúʤíkà]
[úkì]
[íberia]
[ísùlíkí]
[aba]
[hítógó]
[rìkíkì]
[ákàtúá]
[íkábíá]
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
door (way)
wall (of house)
room
house
compound
town
village
well
rubbish heap
road
market
farm
bush
river
sea
[ákulɔnú]
[úbãgo]
[úkúlu]
[úwábũ]
[úwà]
[túbú]
[átũga]
[úkwákwúrá]
[ipuhũ]
[útíná]
[atika]
[atuma]
[ápúa]
[ribírò]
[ribírò]
risàkà
ákulònú
úbango
úkúlu
úwábùn
úwà
chúbu
átúnga
úkwákwúrá
ipuhun
úchíná
achika
atuma
ápúa
ribírò
ribírò
cxc
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
boat (canoe)
stone
mountain
ground
earth (soil)
sand
dust
útúmù
útàrìà
remà
úchàn
úmútá
túkùpùà
utùn
[útúmù]
[útàrìà]
[remà]
[útã]
[úmútá]
[túkùpùà]
[utũ]
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
mad
wind
rain
sunshine
sun
moon
star
day
night
dawn
darkness
sleep
work
war
fear
hunger
thirts
rain
rainy season
dry season
song
story
word
lie(s)
thing
animal
goat
he goat
sheep
cow (zebu)
horse
súlópon
wùyàn
úbùlà
úwínhá
úwínha
úpétànà
hátàùràrè
ríbùdia
akipuwa
ítùrùwí
úduhú
ílàòha
ínmíná
rimonua
mètá
rómíé
wúrú
úbùlà
ubula rókìchí
ubakana rókìchí
úbì
álàbarì
aokun
tubalua
tubalèdán
íná
hipepa
hipepa
ìtamòà
íná
íròkwá
[súlópɔ]
[wùjã]
[úbùlà]
[úwĩhá]
[úwĩha]
[úpétànà]
[hátàùràrè]
[ríbùdia]
[akipuwa]
[ítùrùwí]
[úduhú]
[ílàòha]
[ĩmíná]
[rimonua]
[mètá]
[rómíé]
[wúrú]
[úbùlà]
[ubula rókìtí]
[ubakana rókìtí]
[úbì]
[álàbarì]
[aokũ]
[tubalua]
[tubaldã]
[íná]
[hipepa]
[hipepa]
[ìtamòà]
[íná]
[íròkwá]
151.
donkey
ìjàkìa
[ìʤàkìà]
cxci
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171.
172.
dog
ibùà
cat
ìpana
rat
hímbí
chicken (domestic fowl) ítálòkwa
cock
ízàkàra
duck
àkùtí
egg
eria
wing
ápèta
feather
ápèta
horn
áhé
tail
wina
leopard
hizaki
crocodile
ípá
elephant
íllá
buffalo (bush cow) írùma
monkey
hiuma
tortoise
ípàkúkù
snake
lóhá
lizard (common variety) íkákàdá
crab
íkàguawa
toad (frog)
híkáuha
[ibùà]
[ìpana]
[hímbí]
[ítálòkwa]
[ízàkàra]
[àkùtí]
[eria]
[ápèta]
[ápèta]
[áhé]
[wina]
[hizaki]
[ípá]
[íllá]
[írùma]
[hiuma]
[ípàkúkù]
[lóhá]
[íkákàdá]
[íkàguawa]
[híkáuha]
173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
183.
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
snail
house
bee
mosquito
louse
bird
vulture
kite
hawk
guinea corn
bat
person
name
man
male
husband
woman
female
alokoto
íyún
yíná
íbùn
yupa
íshékubi
ìsàkanà
[alɔkoto]
[íjũ]
[jíná]
[íbũ]
[júpa]
[íkubi]
[ìsàkana]
ishaó
ísòkòsúá
ikamba
hámíá
rina
ndúdèrem
ndóá
múlùmíá
údónúá
údónúá
[iaó]
[ísòkòsúá]
[ikamba]
[hámíá]
[rina]
[ndúdrm]
[ndóá]
[múlùmíá]
[údónúá]
[údónúá]
cxcii
191.
192.
193.
194.
195.
196.
197.
198.
199.
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
208.
209.
210.
211.
212.
wife
údónúá
old person
údorìnkèrin
senior/older
úgàngao
father
utùwà
mother
wúnu
child
ubì
children
babì
son
ubì
daughter
úrìka
brother(sinner) for man múwánùkàmí
brother (younger) for man núwánúsuso
sister (older) for man
múyáákàmí
sister (younger) for man múinàhiarókàmí
mother’s brother
in law
múmíná
guest (stranger)
úcha
friend
úloá
king
úpulú
hunter
wungbárìkinama
thief
wíhí
bocklor (native)
bàbàópìakòupota
witch
úbìta
[údónúá]
[údorìnkrin]
[úgãgao]
[utùwà]
[wúnu]
[ubì]
[babì]
[ubì]
[úrìka]
[múwánùkàmí]
[núwánúsuso]
[múyáákàmí]
[múinàhiarókàmí]
213.
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
223.
224.
225.
226.
227.
228.
229.
chief
medicine
fetish (juju)
corpse
God
one
two
three
four
five
six
seven
eight
nine
ten
eleven
twelve
[nduɔukuni]
[opeta]
[umanakasiri]
[owi]
[wúrò]
[sunìà]
[rìso]
[tatua]
[nasã]
[tuã]
[tẽsua]
[tãsã]
[dálãsua]
[tanaa]
[opua]
[opuá tatunia]
[opuá btal]
nduoukuni
opeta
umanakasiri
owi
wúrò
sunìà
rìso
tatua
nashan
tuan
tensua
tansan
dalansua
tanasha
opua
opua tatunia
opuá bètal
cxciii
[múmíná]
[útà]
[úloá]
[úpulú]
[wũgbárìkinama]
[wíhí]
[bàbàópìakòupota]
[úbìta]
230.
231.
232.
233.
thirteen
fourteen
fifteen
sixtee
opuá bètátátúwa
opuá betanashan
opuáchituan
opuá betatanzua
[opuá bètátátúwa]
[opuá betanaã]
[opuatituã]
[opuá betatãzua]
234.
235.
236.
237.
238.
239.
240.
241.
242.
243.
244.
245.
246.
247.
248.
249.
250.
251.
252.
253.
254.
255.
256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
267.
seventeen
eighteen
nineteen
twenty
twenty-one
twenty-two
thirty
forty
fifty
sixty
seventy
eighty
ninety
hundred
two hundred
four hundred
black
white
red
big (great, large)
small
long (of stick)
short (of stick)
old (opp. new)
new
wet
dry
hot (as fire)
cold
right (side)
left
good
bad
sweet (tasty)
opuá betotaizan
opuá betaralaizua
opuá bétètànashán
àlosò
àlosò bètàtúnìa
àlosò bétáísò
àlàtatùa
álanàshàn
álàtoan
alatenzua
álàtànzà
álàtelònzàù
álàtánàshan
rínàku
ánàkámahsun
ánàkámanasha
ùbiù
lapúhùn
léètà
lékàmi
letótòbí
ídànga ídòngo
ídàngba ídàntòn
lútò
lécha
íhéléchà
rúna
íláta
ínherà
úreètà
ókóròmá
lebraha
lámàndúá
nwòzò
[opuá btɔtaizan]
[opuá btaralaizúa]
[opuá btètànaã]
[àlosò]
[àlosò btàtúnìa]
[àlosò btáísò]
[àlàtatùa]
[álanàã]
[álàtoã]
[alatenzua]
[álàtãzà]
[álàtlònzàù]
[álàtánàã]
[rínàku]
[ánàkámahsũ]
[ánàkámanaa]
[ùbiù]
[lapúhũ]
[léètà]
[lkàmi]
[ltótòbí]
[ídãga ídõgo]
[ídãgba ídãtõ]
[lútò]
[léta]
[íhltà]
[runa]
[íláta]
[ĩherà]
[úreètà]
[ókóròmá]
[lebraha]
[lámãdúá]
[nwòzò]
268.
heavy
íjinjin
[íʤĩ ʤĩ]
cxciv
269.
270.
full
strong
lebì
271.
272.
273.
274.
275.
276.
277.
278.
279.
280.
281.
282.
283.
284.
285.
286.
287.
288.
289.
290.
291.
292.
293.
hard
cat
drink
swallow
bite
lick
taste
spit
vomit
urinate
delecate
give birth
die
stand (up)
sit (down)
kneel
lie (down)
sleep
dream
go
come
return(intr.)
arrive
lájín jína
rea
ínwí
ínlàhá
ínkápùni
ìnrími
ntágbàná
ntàmíe
ímúkòrí
túpáhá
átìpí
úmúatúá
wo
nyèré
ntéchá
nchíkia
ínhìní
láhàchá
wúlèbuai
núá
náná
wétalà
álàpítàhe
[láʤĩ ʤína]
[rea]
[ĩŋwí]
[ĩlàhá]
[ĩkápùni]
[ĩrími]
[ntágbàná]
[ntàmí]
[ímúkòrí]
[túpáhá]
[átìpí]
[úmúatúá]
[wo]
[njèré]
[ntétá]
[ntíkia]
[ĩhìní]
[láhàtá]
[wúlèbuai]
[núá]
[náná]
[wtalà]
[álàpítàhe]
294.
295.
296.
297.
298.
enter
climb
descend
fall
walk
toa
nòná
ngíràníá
nchèní
íméná
[tɔà]
[nòná]
[ŋgíràníá]
[ntèní]
[íméná]
299.
300.
301.
302.
303.
304.
305.
306.
run
jump
fly
pass(by)
turn round (intr.)
follow
see
here
íkàhón
nsùpì
ínyúan
watuníá
pípírò
wámánì
ínhí
díé
[íkàhɔ]
[nsùpì]
[ĩjúã]
[watuníá]
[pípírò]
[wámánì]
[ĩhí]
[dí]
úgbàngbanìà
cxcv
[lbì]
[úgbãgbanìà]
307.
308.
309.
310.
311.
312.
313.
314.
315.
touch(with hand)
know
remember
forget
thing
learn
laugh
weep(cry)
sing
dúkà
nnàpíá
átùnane
nputechá
mánátùnani
ákòyo
íyèkú
ùdánchá
arihe
[dúkà]
[nnàpíá]
[átùnane]
[nputetá]
[mánátùnani]
[ákòjo]
[íjkú]
[ùdãtá]
[arihe]
316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
321.
322.
323.
324.
325.
326.
327.
328.
329.
330.
331.
332.
333.
334.
335.
336.
337.
338.
339.
340.
341.
342.
343.
344.
345.
dance
toon
play(games)
árìmé
fear
meta
greet (salute)
ntoria
abuse
nchàkíá
fight
akunu
call (summon)
ínsamíá
send (someone)
íntúmià
say (direct speech) nwópí
ask (question)
nbípí
reply
wílánwóbìribanà
ask (request)
bípò
refuse
máminita
like
machá
wait (desire)
màchílíbáánà
look for
kìlèlìbánià
lose (something)
làrímí
get (obtain)
nbúkílà
gather (things)
nkòméélà
steal
ímíhí
take (one thing)
kwa
carry (load)
yáhá
show (something) shíkítàmí
give
píánìa
sell
nkúnìa
choose
bírá
buy
yúlà
pay (for something)
píánìa
dount
divide (share out) ímpórìa
cxcvi
[toɔ]
[árìm]
[meta]
[ntoria]
[ntàkíá]
[akunu]
[ĩsamíá]
[ĩtúmià]
[nwópí]
[nbípí]
[wílãwóbìribanà]
[bípò]
[máminita]
[matá]
[màtílíbáánà]
[kìlèlìbánià]
[làrímí]
[nbúkílà]
[nkòméélà]
[ímíhí]
[kwá]
[jáhá]
[íkítàmí]
[píánìa]
[nkúnìa]
[bírá]
[júlà]
[píánìa]
[ímpórìa]
346.
347.
348.
349.
350.
351.
352.
finish (intr.)
work
shoot
kill
skin (flay)
cook
fry
ìmúgbía
rímùnu
íntábìa
ímúgbá
[ìmúgbía]
[rímùnu]
[ĩtábìa]
[ímúgbá]
wúlàriama
impúshírí
[wúlàriama]
[impúírí]
353.
354.
355.
356.
357.
358.
roast
pound (in mortar)
grind
pour
throw
weed
wúlàsoheriholo
íhíní
ngúgí
inwí
innígùmíá
íngwulí
[wúlàsoheriholɔ]
[íhíní]
[ngúgí]
[ĩwí]
[innígùmíá]
[ĩgwulí]
359.
360.
361.
362.
363.
364.
365.
366.
367.
368.
369.
370.
371.
372.
373.
374.
375.
376.
377.
378.
379.
380.
381.
382.
383.
384.
burn (tr.)
íntoa
extinguish (tr.)
ngbádèrimí
plait (hair)
ínpíkì
weave (cloth)
imátáchà
spin (thread)
nkútùrí
sew
nmátácha
put on(clothes)
pahá
take off (clothes) útia
wash (things)
ásakolá
was (beey)
wring (clothes)
ádàrùwàyá
pull
hinangi
push
intámia
beat (person)
imúmìnìá
beat(drum)
ìmumía
break (pot calabash)
wumakiá
break (a stick)
ìmutokiá
tea (tre.)
úchè/ímpálìkìá
split (tr.)
kúbùnálà
pierce
ìntúkià
hoe
úkàto
dig
hehíni
soak (seeds in holes)
inrúhí
plant (tubers)
átùmà
bud
chnròn uchè
build (house)
míláhíní
cxcvii
[ĩtɔa]
[ngbádrimí]
[ĩpíkì]
[imátátà]
[nkútùrí]
[nmátáta]
[pahá]
[útia]
[ásakolá]
[ádàrùwàjá]
[hinãgi]
[ĩtámia]
[imúmìnìá]
[ìmumía]
[wumakiá]
[ìmutokiá]
[ímpálìkìá]
[kúbùnálà]
[ĩtúkià]
[úkàto]
[hehíni]
[ĩrúhí]
[átùmà]
[tnrõ utè]
[míláhíní]
385.
mould (pot)
míláhíní
[míláhíní]
386.
387.
388.
389.
390.
391.
392.
carve (wood)
make
hold (in hand)
tie rope
untie
cover (in hand)
open (door)
ishèbuo
ìnapíla
ìmápia
bópà ikèná
uta íkèná
ìnkobarí
kúbòna
[ièbuɔ]
[ìnapíla]
[ìmápia]
[bópà ikèná]
[uta íkèná]
[ĩkobarí]
[kúbòna]
393.
close
kúbòró
[kúbòrɔ]
394.
(be)rotten
làsàmo
[làsàmɔ]
395.
396.
397.
398.
399.
stink
swell (intr. of boil)
blow (with mouth)
blow(of wind)
surpass
úpúno
rímúdíá
npípì
winya
úbúkíú
[úpúnɔ]
[rímúdíá]
[npípì]
[wĩja]
[úbúkíú]
400.
dwell
ùbùníalò
[ùbùníalɔ]
cxcviii