Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 1
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture
Matthew Luce
Carrie Abarca
Caitlyn Pfeiffer
Tomoka Hashimoto
Krista Grant
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 2
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organization Culture
Suppose a person presented to a physician numerous complaints including stress,
depression, high blood pressure, fatigue, and anxiety; they also complain of having difficulty
concentrating on work and find their job demands to be more and more exhausting. What might
be the cause of these complaints? Mental illness, endocrine malfunction, some physiological
defect affecting the brain; these—and other—symptoms have been shown to relate to certain
workplace phenomena—namely—workplace harassment and abuse (Lutvig-sandik, Tracy, and
Alberts, 2007; Laschinger, Leiter, and Gilin, 2009; Chan, Lam, Chow, and Cheung, 2008).
What—then—defines harassment and abuse actually in the workplace and how can businesses
deal with these phenomena? How do harassment and abuse employees in regards to job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover? What effect does organizational culture
have on harassment and abuse? Do businesses have strategies for improvement on this topic?
The following discussion will seek to answer these questions, show the effect of harassment and
abuse on employees, and provide strategies management can integrate to lessen harassment and
abuse in the workplace.
In recent decades there has been a growing awareness of harassment and abuse within the
workplace. Research within the past several years has shown how widespread these phenome
are. For example, the United States Department of Labor reports there were approximately two
million cases of workplace violence reported in 2010 (“Safety and Health Topics,” n.d.).
According to Lee and Kliner, in 2003, 51,000 rapes and/or sexual assaults occurred in the
workplace per annum (as cited in Firestone and Harris, 2012, p. 437). Most salient to businesses,
however, is the fiscal impact of harassment and abuse. According to the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission there were 11,364 receipts of sexual harassment claims filed in 2011,
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 3
resulting in benefit payouts of 52.3 million dollars (“Sexual Harassment Charges,” n.d.).
Employee turnover, which is increased by harassment and abuse in the workplace, can become a
large expense for businesses—training new employees can cost between twenty to fifty percent
of their annual salary (ten-thousand to thirty-thousand dollars on average) (Mitchell, Holtom, and
Lee, 2001, p. 97; Boushey and Glynn, 2012, p.1-2). As can be easily imagined, the actual costs
of dealing with harassment and abuse are much higher; these few figures do not even estimate
the costs of litigation or the losses in productivity from employees. Harassment and abuse in the
workplace negatively affects employee performance, job satisfaction, and retention, and can be
exacerbated by an organization’s culture.
The first step to studying this issue is examining exactly what is meant by the terms
“harassment” and “abuse.” While defining these terms might seem banal and straightforward, it
is somewhat difficult to do so in reality. The definitions of harassment and abuse are rather fluid
and interchangeable; a fact many researchers lament (Crashaw, 2009, p. 264; Neuman and
Baron, 1998, p. 394-395). Crashaw lists thirty-five terms, including harassment and abuse which
are used interchangeably in the literature regarding these workplace phenomena; furthermore,
she states the confusion of terms makes even discussing the issue difficult. She cites Fox and
Stallworth (2009) stating that a lack of concrete definitions greatly hinders making progress
towards reducing these behaviors in the workplace (as cited in Crashaw 2009, p. 264). However,
despite the lack of consensus among researchers, there are some commonly accepted definitions
of harassment and abuse.
What, specifically, are harassment and abuse in the workplace? Bowling and Beehr
(2006) give this definition of harassment: “Workplace harassment, which is defined as
interpersonal behavior aimed at intentionally harming another employee in the workplace. . .
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 4
Extreme harassment can include homicide and physical assault, but the more common, minor
instances include obscene gestures, dirty looks, and threats, yelling, giving the silent treatment,
and belittling” (p. 998). The United States Department of Labor explains harassment in more
practical detail, stating that harassment can either be quid pro quo or creating a hostile work
environment (“What do I need to know” n.d.). The terms can be further divided into specific
categories such as bullying, sexual harassment, verbal, and physical abuse.
The definition of abuse overlaps with that of harassment, and it can be somewhat difficult
to differentiate the two. Crashaw (2009) argues for a definition of workplace abuse that mirrors
contemporary uses such as child or domestic abuse, including such behaviors as sexual
harassment, workplace violence, and unsafe working conditions. She further recommends
separating psychological workplace abuse (which includes verbal abuse) and physical abuse
(which coincides with other authors’ use of the term harassment). She further suggests bullying
is a separate category from abuse (p. 264-265).
Another specific type of abuse mentioned by authors is verbal abuse. Sofield and
Salmond (2003) define verbal abuse as abuse that is “. . . communicated through words, tone, or
manner that disparages, intimidates, patronizes, threatens, accuses, or disrespects toward
another” (p. 1). Physical abuse involves some physical type of workplace harassment involving a
violent, harmful action—such as assault or rape; some researchers refer to it as workplace
aggression (Neuman and Baron, 1998, p. 395). According to Neuman and Baron examples of
workplace abuse are, “(1) the withholding of cooperation, spreading rumors or gossip, consistent
arguing, belligerency, and the use of offensive language, (2) intense arguments with supervisors,
coworkers, and customers, sabotage, verbal threats and feelings of persecution, and (3) frequent
displays of intense anger resulting in recurrent suicidal threats, physical fights, destruction of
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 5
property, use of weapons, and the commission of murder, rape, and/or arson” (p. 395). While the
terminology of harassment and abuse might be fluid, the core ethos of the terms is clear: both
terms describe behaviors that intentionally harm the mental, emotional, or physical wellbeing of
subordinates, peers, or supervisors. From this point forward, the two terms—and their
subtypes—will be used fairly interchangeably.
Now that—as much as possible—the terms “harassment” and “abuse” have been defined,
it is also important to understand the role of organization culture—or climate—upon
counterproductive behavior such as harassment and abuse. The first step in this process is to
define organizational culture itself. Schein, drawing from many researchers, defines
organizational culture as:
The culture of a group can now be defined as a pattern of shared basic assumptions
learned by a group as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal
integration, which has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be
taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those
problems. (Schein, 2010, p.18)
According to Schein’s view, organizational culture is a paradigmatic approach to learning—
specifically learning patterns of thought and behavior that allow an organization to function.
Furthermore, two researchers—building upon Schein’s earlier work—state that: “culture is
conveyed to us on an almost daily basis by organizational policies, standard operating
procedures, organizational stories, and organizational ceremonies” (Lawson and Ventriss, 1992).
Other researchers give different definitions; some more complex and others less so. Again,
however, it is important to understand the core concept; that is, organizational culture is the way
(and justification) for why people in an organization act and think.
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 6
One final aspect regarding organizational culture that is extremely salient regards its
source. Where—exactly—does organizational culture come from? According to Schein (2010):
Cultures basically spring from three sources: (1) the beliefs, values, and assumptions of
founders of organizations; (2) the learning experiences of group members as their
organization evolves; and (3) new beliefs, values, and assumptions brought in by new
members and new leaders. Though each of these mechanisms plays a crucial role, by far
the most important for cultural beginnings is the impact of founders. (p. 219)
Schein gives, as an example of this concept, the story of a major businessman in Canada whose
personal values of custom service, trust, cleanliness, and delivering a quality product “leeched”
into his chain of grocery stores, and helped the chain achieve large measures of success (p. 221).
There are other examples of executives values and beliefs creating an organizational culture that
handles controversies and ethical dilemmas positively; for example in 2003, 3M executives
chose to remove a chemical from their production because it could possibly cause cancer if
absorbed in large doses. This decision cost 3M $200 million (Ridder, 2003).
Now that all relevant terms have been defined, a question that bears asking about
harassment and abuse is, “Why do some workplaces have high instances of harassment and
abuse, while other organizations do not?” While it is by no means the only cause of harassment
and abuse, both theories of organizational behavior and actual research point toward
organizational cultures’ role in effecting rates of workplace harassment and abuse.
Intuitively, it seems that organizational culture could either promote a safe or hostile
working environment, and can encourage or discourage personal mores that lead to harassment
and abuse. A concrete example of concept is provided by Sinha (2008). He describes a crosssection of organizational cultures of business in India, describing one section as “[an] amoral
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 7
work-centric culture in which work is the most central among the concerns of the members. . .”
and describing their behavior as “Exploitative and amoral” (p. 312). It is logical to assume that
behaviors such as harassment and abuse would be more commonplace in environments such as
this; something that research on the matter seems to support.
Willness, Steel, and Lee (2007) in their discussion of the antecedents of sexual
harassment state:
Organizational climate for SH [sexual harassment] had the largest effect size of any
variable in this analysis (RC = .364), confirming its importance as an antecedent of SH.
There is a strong research foundation in this literature regarding respondents’ perceptions
of organizational tolerance, policies and procedures, and implementation practices, and it
is quite clear that the organizational climate and workplace environment are central to
understanding the conditions under which harassment is more likely to occur and how the
victims are affected. (p.143)
Marcus and Schuler in their meta-analysis listed several variables that correlate with general
counterproductive behavior; of which harassment and abuse are included. In their study they
found organizational group norms (a facet of organization culture) had a moderately negative
correlation (R=-.31) with general counterproductive behavior (Marcus and Schuler, 2004, p. 652)
While this study is very broad in focus, its findings logically coincide with the theoretical view
of harassment and abuse vis-à-vis organizational culture. Snyder et al. produces similar
correlations between organizational culture and sexual harassment, and Neuman and Baron state
a theoretical link between organizational culture and workplace violence and aggression (Snyder
et al., 2012, p. 139-140; Neuman and Baron, 1998, p. 401, 408-9).
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 8
Other researchers seem to take the link between harassment and abuse and organizational
culture for granted (Harvey and Heames, 2007, p. 2577). Tambur and Vadi (2012) in their
literature review state that common consensus is that one form of abuse—bullying—is either
caused by organizational culture or personal disposition. Furthermore, they agree with Brodsky
(1976) that organizational culture can exacerbate or salve personal aggression, and a permissive
organizational culture can provide outlets to allow personal aggressiveness to become
harassment or abuse (as cited in Tambur and Vadi, 2012, p. 758).
It can be seen there is a common thread woven amongst the various studies and theories;
organizational culture can have an impact on violent and aggressive behaviors in the workplace.
This fact is not entirely surprising. It does, however, raise several questions for managers. The
first question deals with the problems created by harassment and abuse—in other words—is it
worthwhile to try to eliminate these behaviors, and two—what role can changing organizational
culture play on the first goal.
The answer to the first question is a resounding “Yes!”; it is definitely worthwhile to
attempt to eliminate harassment and abuse in the workplace. It is no great surprise that employers
desire employees that perform well, because—undoubtedly—high-performing employees
contribute significantly to the financial success of a company. Unfortunately for both employers
and employees, workplace harassment and abuse can negatively affect workplace performance.
Chan et al. found a weak negative correlation (R=-.21) in their meta-analysis, and Bowling and
Beehr (2006) found in their meta-analysis there was a weak negative (R=-.06)1 between
workplace harassment and abuse and employee performance (1004). Willness et al. (2007) found
1
The discrepancy between Bowling and Beehr with the two other studies could be related to sample size. Bowling
and Beehr studied a total of 987 individuals, while the other two studies utilized over thirty-thousand a piece.
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 9
similar results with a correlation of R=-.25 (p. 141). These three studies confirm the hypothesis
that workplace harassment and abuse can have a negative impact on employee performance.
The concept that harassment and abuse decreases job satisfaction is well founded both in
theory and practice. Under Smith, Kendall, and Hulin’s (1969) model of job satisfaction is
influenced by levels of satisfaction of specific job facets—including relationships with coworkers and supervisors (as cited in Jung and Kim, 2012, p. 3640). This model seems to explain
the relationship between job satisfaction and harassment and abuse quite sufficiently; if one has
abusive co-workers and/or supervisors, he will tend to be less satisfied with his job in general.
This hypothesis agrees with Willness et al. who state, “. . .employees’ satisfaction with the
interpersonal aspects of work (i.e., coworkers: rc = −.316; supervisors: rc = −.285) was
significantly more negatively affected by SH experiences than was their satisfaction with work
itself (rc = −.241)”.
This hypothesis is confirmed by several studies. Bowling and Beehr found a moderately
negative (R=-.32) correlation between harassment and job satisfaction, and Chan et al. found a
similar correlation of R=-.27 (Chan et al., 2009, p. 1004). Willness et al. claim a weak negative
(R=-.24) correlation between sexual harassment and job satisfaction. Lutgen-Sandvik, Tracy, and
Alberts (2007) found a very strong negative correlation (R=-.59) between bullying and job
satisfaction. These correlations are not limited to sexual harassment or physical abuse; Soffield
and Salmond (2003) state that, “Verbal abuse significantly affects the workplace by decreasing
morale, increasing job dissatisfaction, and creating a hostile work environment.” Not only can
verbal and physical abuse or harassment correlate with employee dissatisfaction but also simple
workplace incivility correlates moderately positive according to Laschinger, Leiter, Day, and
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 10
Gillin (2009). As these studies show, harassment and abuse contribute significantly to employee
dissatisfaction in the workplace.
One final area that harassment and abuse effects is organizational commitment. There is
one particular facet of organizational commitment—affective commitment—that is easily
influenced by a hostile work environment. Allen and Meyer (1990) define affective commitment
as: “. . . an affective or emotional attachment to the organization such that the strongly
committed individual identifies with, is involved in, and enjoys membership in, the organization”
(p. 2). Allen and Meyer further state, “the strongest evidence [for antecedents of affective
commitment] has been provided for work experience antecedents, most notably those
experiences that fulfil employees' psychological needs to feel comfortable within the
organization and competent in the work-role” (p. 4). It would seem to follow that if a person is
not comfortable within their organization, they will be less likely to be committed to it; this is a
fact which research bears out.
Bowling and Beehr (2009) found a moderately negative (R=-.30) correlation between
workplace violence and organizational commitment (p. 1004). Chan et al. (2008) found a
negative correlation between sexual harassment and organizational commitment, and weak
positive correlations between sexual harassment and withdrawal behaviors (p. 370). Willness,
Steel, and Lee (2007) found similar correlations between sexual harassment and organizational
commitment in their meta-analysis (p. 141). Laschinger et al. (2009) found incivility in the
workplace moderately contributed to a decrease in commitment and intent to leave the
organization (p. 306). Employees becoming dissatisfied with their workplace and intending to
leave are linked to harassment and abuse in the workplace.
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 11
It has been shown that employees suffer in many ways from harassment and abuse in the
workplace, and that performance, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction suffer as well.
Since organizations wish to improve performance, commitment, and satisfaction—and avoid the
legal, fiscal, and political fallout they cause—it seems apparent they would seek to limit
harassment and abuse. One of the ways businesses can attempt to reduce harassment and abuse is
to examine and—if necessary—change their organizational culture. There are many ways
businesses can seek to do this, including having ethical leadership, providing employees with
examples of untolerated behavior, and fostering an organizational culture that is supportive and
helps employees.
If Schein’s previously mentioned theories about organizational culture are correct, one of
the key ways to create an organization culture that discourages harassment and abuse is to have
leaders that neither commit nor tolerate harassment and abuse. Tambur and Vadi (2012) give a
specific example of this idea. They state that leadership styles have a significant impact on
bullying in the workplace, and organizations with autocratic leadership styles and a large power
distance are more likely to be abusive (p. 758). Neuman and Baron (1998) concur, stating that
having a “climate of honesty displayed by leadership” can decrease instances of workplace
aggression and abuse (p. 409). Before considering other options to decrease harassment and
abuse, the leadership of a firm must set an example for subordinates.
Another way to influence organizational culture is clearly communicating with
employees what types of behaviors will not be tolerated. As mentioned above, Lawson and
Ventriss (1992) maintain that an important way organizational culture is communicated to
individuals is through written means—such as policies or employee handbooks. Neuman and
Baron (1998) suggest the following methods to discourage workplace aggression, “Organizations
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 12
must clearly articulate that aggression will not be tolerated and provide defections of
inappropriate behavior. Not only will this serve to establish norms of appropriate behavior, but
also it may dispel the belief that certain forms of aggression are part-of-the-job” (p. 408).
However, simply implementing such policies is worthless if managers and executives do not
follow and enforce them. Marcus and Schuller (2004) found in their meta-analysis that general
counterproductive behavior (including harassment and abuse) were discouraged more by
organizational awareness and monitoring than by an organization taking action regarding the
behavior (R=-.24, -.20, and -.05 respectively)(p. 652). Again, instituting anti-harassment and
abuse policies is not a complete solution to the problem; however, if management creates such a
policy, monitors the workplace for prohibited behaviors, and punishes those who engage in
harassment and abuse, these counterproductive behaviors could be reduced.
One final way leaders can seek to change their organizations culture to reduce harassment
and abuse is helping employees relate positively to one another and fostering a strong
cooperative “community” via organizational culture (Neuman and Baron, 1998, p. 409). For
example, if an organizational culture promotes supportive relationships between employees, it is
less likely employees will be dissatisfied with their relationships and harass or abuse others
(Marcus and Schuler, Willness et al.). Snyder et al. suggest applying the social disorder theory—
a theory which states communities that suffer a structural breakdown are more likely to have
larger rates of crime—to organizations; they theorize a workplace that suffers from poor
interpersonal relationships and a breakdown of a sense of “community” is more likely to suffer
from sexual harassment and other abusive behaviors (p. 138).These are but a sample of the ways
organizations can use culture to decrease instances of harassment and abuse, and changing
organizational culture is but one way of decreasing these unwanted behaviors.
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 13
Harassment and abuse are not fugacious items within organizations, but employers can
take steps to limit these behaviors to the benefit of their employees. Organizations which seek to
curtail harassment and abuse will see increases in productivity, workplace satisfaction, and
organizational commitment, and will have happier, healthier, and more valuable employees
overall. Organizations must be aware of the correlation between certain types of organizational
cultures and harassment and abuse, and should—whenever it is feasible—make adjustments to
their own culture. If we return to the anecdote mentioned at the beginning of this paper, what
remedy should the physician prescribe then for the fictitious persons’ ailments? Perhaps he might
prescribe an organizational culture that decreases instances of harassment and abuse; a remedy
many organizations need.
Harassment and Abuse in the Work Place: Correlations with Organizational Culture 14
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