ARTICULO DE V. BERLINERBLAU:
LINEAMIENTOS FORENSES PARA LA EVALUACIÓN DE NIÑOS, NIÑAS Y
ADOLESCENTES EN DENUNCIAS POR PRESUNTO ABUSO SEXUAL. Especificidad
forense. Protocolos. Cuestiones éticas.
Publicado en la Revista de Familia ¨El Derecho¨, agosto de 2011
Virginia Berlinerblau. Psiquiatra Infanto Juvenil. Médica Legista. Médica Forense de la
Justicia Nacional. vbblau@gmail.com
Introducción:
Kempe, médico pediatra, y sus colegas ayudaron a despertar el interés de los profesionales
sobre el abuso de niños (1962). Lamb (1994, 1996), Finkelhor (1986, 1994, 1997) señalaron
luego un viraje en el interés profesional desde el abuso físico al abuso sexual con
incrementos notables de los casos denunciados. Surgió el reconocimiento de que muchos
casos de abuso podían permanecer sin ser detectados, porque las víctimas, únicas fuentes
posibles de información, raramente brindaban dicha información. Los investigadores
efectuaron esfuerzos considerables para entender cómo el testimonio infantil puede resultar
lo más completo, útil y confiable posible, usando técnicas de entrevistas forenses. En la
Argentina se han logrado avances parciales en cuanto al reconocimiento del abuso sexual
infantil como un problema común de la infancia y a las necesidades y particularidades de los
niños testigos en la Justicia. Losimaginarios socioculturales e ideologías imperantes que
silencian a las víctimas perpetúan el secreto y producen revictimización.
Características generales de los delitos de abuso sexual infantil
En la mayoría de los casos denunciados el abusador suele ser un progenitor o padrastro y
cuando es extrafamiliar, personas ´confiables´: amigos, vecinos, maestros, curas,
entrenadores deportivos, cuidadores, etc.. Muy aisladamente llegan a la justicia denuncias de
prostitución infantil, trata de personas, pornografía infantil, o turismo sexual con niños/as). La
relación entre el niño/a y el abusador le ofrece oportunidades para prepararlo/a durante un
tiempo, para callar el abuso, someter al niño/a y evitar ser detectados. Los abusadores de
niños suelen presentarse a sí mismos como personas afectuosas y de bien hacia el mundo
externo. Tienden a adoptar tácticas que comienzan con una conducta inapropiada, que
escala gradualmente a través del tiempo a conductas más serias. El ASI puede ocurrir
durante semanas, meses y años, antes del descubrimiento y solo una minoría es develado.
Los niños/as más vulnerables son por pobreza, educación deficiente, o con carencias en la
protección parental. Son más fáciles de manipular y están en desventaja cuando revelan el
abuso.
Complejidad de las investigaciones penales en denuncias de abuso sexual infantil
El desafío más importante es obtener información detallada y confiable sobre la naturaleza
de los hechos por parte del niño/a abusado. Esta evidencia es vital, como en otros tipos de
delitos. Máxime porque no suele haber testigos. La investigación calificada puede obtener
pruebas que corroboren la situación y que puedan ayudar a sostener las declaraciones
hechas por los niños/as. La evidencia médica suele ser limitada en este contexto. Es también
esencial durante la investigación que se reduzca la posibilidad de la contaminación de las
pruebas aportadas por el niño/a, al requerirle la descripción de sus experiencias ante
diferentes profesionales, a lo largo de largos periodos de tiempo y reiteradamente, máxime
cuando se cuenta con la videograbación de la declaración inicial y no ha sido
razonablemente cuestionada.
Desarrollo infantil y Capacidad del niño/a testigo
Aunque los niños/as claramente pueden recordar incidentes que hayan experimentado, la
relación entre edad y memoria es compleja, con una variedad de factores que influencian la
calidad de la información provista. Quizás el más importante de estos factores pertenezca a
la habilidad de los entrevistadores para poner al descubierto información planteando
preguntas cuidadosas -sin inducirlo ni acallarlo-, y a la predisposición, voluntad y habilidad
del niño para expresarla, más que las habilidad del niño para recordarla (APSAC 1990, 1997;
Jones, 2003; Lamb, 1994; Lamb, Sternberg, Esplin, Horowitz, 2000; Sattler, 1998).
Entrevista Investigativa Forense. Protocolos. Capacitación Específica.
Las Evaluaciones Psicosociales en denuncias por ASI y maltrato infantil pueden ser
entendidas como un proceso sistemático de recopilación de información y formación de una
opinión profesional acerca de la fuente y significado de las declaraciones, el comportamiento,
pensamiento y emociones y otras pruebas que son la base de la preocupación por un posible
abuso sexual a un niño/a. No hay una práctica única ni estandarizada, aunque recientes
estudios sostienen las ventajas de usar para las Entrevistas en la Investigación de Víctimas
de Abuso Sexual el Protocolo del N.I.C.H.D. Se trata de una entrevista estructurada al niño/a
presunta víctima (Orbach et al., 2000), cuya metodología se basada en un enfoque gradual,
siendo clave la creación de una relación de confianza entre el entrevistador/a forense y el
niño/a. En un entorno físico y un clima que facilite la comodidad del niño, se propiciará a
través de una serie de comentarios y preguntas de final abierto, que el niño/a describa en
sus propias palabras exactamente lo que le ha sucedido. Cuando la fase de relato libre ha
concluido, el entrevistador/a puede realizar preguntas aclaratorias –focalizadas y específicaspara expandir y clarificar detalles, y luego pasar a tópicos más livianos para facilitar la
transición a la salida. Los procedimientos de entrevista pueden modificarse en casos de
niños/as muy pequeños, con mínimas habilidades verbales, o niños/as con problemas
especiales. Si la entrevista de declaración testimonial no arrojó ningún resultado y persiste la
preocupación por posibilidad de abuso sexual, debería preguntársele directamente al niño/a
acerca de la posibilidad de abuso sexual para responder a la pregunta legal y evaluar riesgo
de revictimización. Las preguntas coercitivas o intimidantes nunca están justificadas. Se
debe cumplir con todas las pautas legales y reconocerse que las entrevistas forenses son
parte y no sinónimo de la investigación judicial. El profesional forense debe estar específica y
formalmente capacitado, tener experiencia en realizar evaluaciones forenses y en proveer
testimonio experto, caso contrario la supervisión es esencial.
Ponderación de información colateral. Consideración de Hipótesis alternativas.
La revisión de los materiales considerados relevantes es fundamental: antecedentes del
expediente, entrevistas colaterales con el cuidador primario no ofensor, etc.. El evaluador/a
debe abordar la evaluación con una mentalidad abierta, teniendo en cuenta que todas las
fuentes de información tienen limitaciones y pueden contener imprecisiones. Debe considerar
hipótesis alternativas plausibles, la posibilidad de denuncias falsas (inventos deliberados),
erróneas (equivocadas aunque de buena fe), o insustanciadas (aquellas en las que el nivel
de la evidencia fue considerada insuficiente, lo que dependiendo del criterio de quien juzga el
caso). La invstigación sostiene que el número de falsas denuncias intencionales es
considerablemente menor que el número de casos infundados o no sustanciados.
Informe forense. Recomendaciones. Necesidad de revisiones. Cuestiones éticas.
El informe de evaluación debería reflejar una revisión objetiva de la información colateral
confiable utilizada. La documentación escrita y claramente redactada es el requisito mínimo,
incluyendo las citas literales entrecomilladas de las preguntas y respuestas
significativas (verbales y no verbales). La videograbación de la declaración testimonial al
inicio es la práctica preferida para evitar el deterioro de los recuerdos y las influencias del
entorno. La entrevista/ evaluación puede ser no concluyente. Si es así, el evaluador debería
consignar la información que es motivo de preocupación persistente, pero que no permite
afirmar o descartar el abuso. Deberían efectuarse recomendaciones psicoterapéuticas o con
relación al entorno del niño, respecto de la conducta y estado emocional y para garantizar la
seguridad del niño. Hoy en día se reconocen numerosas secuelas emocionales a largo plazo
que son frecuentemente devastadoras. Los procedimientos deben ser regularmente
supervisados y revisados con el objeto de identificar oportunidades de ajustes y mejoras.
Credibilidad del testimonio infantil
Los factores que influencian favorablemente la credibilidad -la veracidad y precisión del
niño/a- incluyen el conocimiento sexual inapropiado para la edad, el relato efectuado con
espontaneidad, en el lenguaje propio de los niños/as y desde el punto de vista infantil, la
descripción detallada (aunque debe tenerse en cuenta que los niños/as pequeños
típicamente proveen relatos incompletos y breves, con pocos detalles), relato consistente y
mantenido básicamente en el tiempo, relato de la historia por partes, más que toda de una
vez, relato verosímil: la historia es plausible y físicamente posible, estado afectivo congruente
con lo explicitado (aunque puede haber muchos motivos por los que un niño/a esté enojado,
triste o manifieste disociación afectiva), estilo cándido, tal como el hacer correcciones
espontáneas, admitiendo que hay detalles que no puede recordar, comparación de la historia
de los síntomas y conducta del niño/a favorable con el contenido de la entrevista, descripción
de circunstancias típicas de una situación de abuso sexual (amenaza, presión, seducción,
coerción, secreto), descripción de la experiencia subjetiva, entre otros.Es fundamental
considerar la producciones del niño por sí mismas y también si particularmente hay una
historia previa de abuso sexual para aclarar los diferentes casos.
Conclusiones
En por presunto abuso sexual infantil, es esencial que se definan objetivos claros y se
revisen y adopten prácticas y procedimientos que mejoren la eficacia de las investigaciones:
reducir el trauma experimentado por el niño/a víctima y obtener un testimonio eficaz de
niños/as testigos, proveyendo que los sistemas y procedimientos permitan a los niños/as
tener los mismos derechos a la justicia como los adultos víctimas. Los roles
yresponsabilidades en el ámbito penal debe ser interrogada, tanto a nivel individual,
institucional, gubernamental u otras. Finalmente, la adhesión a protocolos y buenas prácticas
garantiza además los derechos del imputado al proveer un marco de referencia y mejorar la
actuación profesional.
Bibliografía
American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children. Guidelines for Psychosocial
Evaluation of Suspected Sexual Abuse in Young Children, (1998) Chicago, IL.
Berlinerblau Virginia. El Backlash y el abuso sexual infantil. (2003) Rev. S. A.G.I.J. Vol.
10. Núm. 2.
Berlinerblau V., Butler T., Diaz Z., Freedman D., Nino M., Pinto G., Pzellinsky R., Terragni M..
Guía de Buenas Prácticas para el abordaje judicial de NNyA víctimas o testigos de violencia,
abuso sexual y otros delitos. UNICEF y A.D.C. Versión preliminar (2010). Buenos Aires,
Argentina.
Cohen E. Raquel, MD, MPH. Proceso de Investigación en Casos de Abuso Sexual
Infantil. (2011).
Finkelhor D.. Abuso Sexual Infantil. 1984. Editorial Pax México.
Giberti (Dirección). Incesto Paterno- Filial. (1998). Una visión multidisciplinaria. Editorial
Universidad.
Hewitt S. K. Assesing Allegations of Sexual Abuse in Preschool Children. Understanding
Small Voices. (1999). IVPS. Sage Publications.
Intebi, Irene. Proteger, Reparar, Penalizar. Evaluación de las sospechas de abuso sexual
infantil. (2011). Editorial Granica.
Juárez López R.J. Evaluación de la credibilidad: criterios y problemática.
2008 http://www20.gencat.cat/docs/Justicia/Documents/ARXIUS/Juarez.pdf
Kempe H. C.; F. N. Silverman, B. F. Steele, W. Droegemueller, H. K. Silver. The BatteredChild Syndrome. (1962) JAMA. Doi: 10.1001/jama.1962.03050270019004.
Lacombe Elena. Comunicaciones personales (1993 a la fecha).
Lamb M. E., Hershkowitz I., Orbach Y. and E. P. W. (2008). Tell Me What Happened. Wiley
Editions.
Myers J. E. B. (2011) The APSAC Handbook on CHILD MALTREATMENT, 3 Ed. Sage
Publications.
Myers J. E. B. Legal Issues in Child Abuse and Neglect Practice, Sec. Edition. Sage
Publications. 1998.
Curriculum dr.
THOMAS
Lyon
Dr. en Psicología
y especialista en abuso sexual infantil, que en esta oportunidad hace una Adaptación del Protocolo
de la entrevista investigativa del NICHD, es decir un protocolo de Entrevista
Investigativa que es considerado actualmente el mejor Procotolo de Entrevista Forense a
la fecha para entrevistar niños/as en denuncias de ASI y de Maltrato Infantil.
El curriculum del Dr. Thomas Lyon (doctor en psicología, USA):
Work Experience Dr. Lyon:
Judge Edward J. and Ruey L. Guirado Chair in Law and Psychology, University of Southern
California, 2008Professor of Law & Psychology, University of Southern California, 2005-2007; Professor,
University of Southern California Law School, 2000-2004; Assistant Professor, 1995-2000.
Research Associate, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, January, 1994-September, 1996.
Attorney, Children's Services Division, Los Angeles County Counsel, 1987-1995
Education:
Ph.D. Psychology, Stanford University, June, 1994
Advisor: John F. Flavell
Dissertation: Young Children’s Understanding of Desire and Knowledge (received the
American Psychology Association Division 7 Award for Outstanding Dissertation in
Developmental Psychology, 1995)
J.D., Harvard Law School, magna cum laude, June, 1987
B.A. English, Dartmouth College, magna cum laude, June, 1983 Editorial Experience:
Associate Editor, Psychology, Public Policy, & Law, 2012Associate Editor for Legal Issues, American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children
Advisor, 1995-2001, 2007-.
Guest Reviewer: American Psychologist; Applied Cognitive Psychology, British Journal of
Developmental Psychology; British Journal of Psychology; Child Abuse & Neglect; Children
and Youth Services Review; Child Development; Child Maltreatment; Developmental
Psychology; Developmental Science; Guilford Press; Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment,
and Trauma; Journal of Applied Social Psychology; Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology; Journal of Interpersonal Violence; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology;
Journal of Trauma and Dissociation; Law & Human Behavior; Law & Social Inquiry; Law &
Society Review; Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development; National
Science Foundation; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Lyon p. 2 Council of Canada; New Criminal Law Review; Oxford University Press;
Psychology, Public Policy, & Law; Sage Publications; Trames (Estonian
Academy of Sciences); Trauma, Violence, and Abuse.
Scientific and Professional Organizations:
American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (Member of the Board of Directors,
1995-2002; Chair of the Legal Subcommittee, 1995-2002; Member,
APSAC Task Force on Reactive Attachment Disorder, 2004; Recipient of the William
Friedrich Memorial Award, 2008)
American Psychological Association (President, Child Maltreatment Section, Division of Youth
and Family Services, 2003-2004; Chair, APA Task Force on
Developmental Psychology and the Child Witness) American Psychological Society
Society for Research in Child Development
Research Grants:
6. Lyon, T.D., Principal Investigator, Rizzo, A., & Talbot, T. (Co-Investigators) (8/1/20127/31/2013). Investigative Child Interviewing: Learning through Interaction with a Virtual Child.
USC Zumberge Interdisciplinary Grant ($49,941).
5. Lyon, T.D., Principal Investigator (6/10/2011-3/31/2016). Facilitating Maltreated Children’s
Honesty (HD047290). National Institute of Child Health and Development, National Institutes
of Health ($1,951,647).
4. Lyon, T.D., Principal Investigator (5/1/2006-6/10/2011). Child Maltreatment and Honesty
(HD047290). National Institute of Child Health and Development, National Institutes of Health
($1,741,998).
3. Friedman, W.J., & Lyon, T.D., Co-Principal Investigators (8/1/2003-7/31/2006). RUI
Collaborative Research: The Development of Memory for Temporal Information (0241586).
National Science Foundation ($239,929).
2. Lyon, T.D., Koverola, C., & Heger, A. (1999). Children’s Disclosure of Sexual Abuse.
Interdisciplinary Grant; James H. Zumberge Faculty Research and Innovation Fund
($24,999).
1. Saywitz, K.J., & Lyon, T.D., Co-Principal Investigators (1994-1996). Sensitively Assessing
Children's Testimonial Competence. National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect,
Department of Health and Human Services ($200,000).
Training Grants:
2. Lyon, T.D. & Vaclavik, K. (2002-2004). Legal Assistance for Victims Grant Program. Office
of Violence Against Women, United States Department of Justice ($394,758).
1. Lyon, T.D. & Vaclavik, K. (2002-2004). Helping Families Break the Cycle of Domestic
Violence. The California Endowment ($303,333).
Publications in Peer-reviewed Journals
28. Wandrey, L., Quas, J.A., & Lyon, T.D. (2012). Does valence matter? Effects of negativity
on children's early understanding of truths and lies. Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology, 113, 295-303.
27. Lyon, T.D., Carrick, N., & Quas, J.A. (in press). Right and righteous: Children's incipient
understanding of true and false statements. Journal of Cognition and Development.
26. Lyon, T.D., Scurich, N., Choi, K., Handmaker, S., & Blank, R. (2012). “How did you feel?”
Increasing child sexual abuse witnesses’ production of evaluative information. Law & Human
Behavior, 36, 448-457.
25. Wandrey, L., Lyon, T.D., Quas, J.A., & Friedman, W.F. (2012). Maltreated children’s
ability to estimate temporal location and numerosity of placement changes and court visits.
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 18, 79-104.
24. Lyon, T.D., Ahern, E.C., & Scurich, N. (2012). Interviewing children vs. tossing coins:
Accurately assessing the diagnosticity of children’s disclosures of abuse. Journal of Child
Sexual Abuse, 21, 19-44.
23. Evans, A.D., & Lyon, T.D. (2012). Assessing children’s competency to take the oath in
court: The influence of question type on children’s accuracy. Law & Human Behavior, 195205.
22. Ahern, E. C., Lyon, T. D., & Quas, J. A. (2011). Young children’s emerging ability to make
false statements. Developmental Psychology, 47, 61-66.
21. Lyon, T.D., Ahern, E.A., Malloy, L.A., & Quas, J.A. (2010). Children’s reasoning about
disclosing adult transgressions: Effects of maltreatment, child age, and adult identity. Child
Development, 81, 1714-1728.
20. Carrick, N., Quas, J.A., & Lyon, T.D. (2010). Maltreated and Nonmaltreated Children’s
Evaluations of Emotional Fantasy. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 129-134.
19. Lyon, T.D., Carrick, N., & Quas, J.A. (2010). Young Children’s Competency to Take the
Oath: Effects of Task, Maltreatment, and Age. Law & Human Behavior, 34, 141- 149.
18. Evans, A.D., Lee, K., & Lyon, T.D. (2009). Complex questions asked by defense lawyers
but not prosecutors predicts convictions in child abuse trials. Law & Human Behavior, 33,
258-264.
17. Quas, J.A., Wallin, A.R., Horwitz, B., Davis, E., & Lyon, T.D. (2009). Maltreated children’s
understanding of and emotional reactions to dependency court involvement. Behavioral
Sciences & the Law, 27, 97-117.
16. Lyon, T.D., Malloy, L.C., Quas, J.A., & Talwar, V. (2008). Coaching, truth induction, and
young maltreated children’s false allegations and false denials. Child Development, 79, 914929.
15. Lyon, T.D., & Dorado, J.S. (2008). Truth induction in young maltreated children: The
effects of oath-taking and reassurance on true and false disclosures. Child Abuse & Neglect,
32, 738-748.
14. Malloy, L.C., Lyon, T.D., & Quas, J.A. (2007). Filial dependency and recantation of child
sexual abuse allegations. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry, 46, 162-170.
13. Lyon, T.D., & Saywitz, K.J. (2006). From post-mortem to preventive medicine: Next steps
for research on child witnesses. Journal of Social Issues, 62, 833-861.
12. Malloy, L.C., & Lyon, T.D. (2006). Caregiver support and child sexual abuse: Why does it
matter? Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 15, 97-103.
11. Chaffin, M., Hanson, R., Saunders, B. E., Nichols, T., Barnett, D., Zeanah, C. Berliner, L.,
Egeland, B., Newman, E., Lyon, T., Letourneau, E., Miller-Perrin, C. (2006). Report of the
APSAC task force on attachment therapy, Reactive Attachment Disorder, and attachment
problems. Child Maltreatment, 11, 76-89.
10. Friedman, W.J., & Lyon, T.D. (2005). The Development of Temporal- Reconstructive
Abilities. Child Development, 76, 1202-1216.
9. Freyd, J.J., Putnam, F.W., Lyon, T.D., Becker-Blease, K.A., Cheit, R.E., Siegel, N.B., &
Pezdek, K. (2005). The problem of child sexual abuse: Response. Science, 309, 1183-1184.
8. Freyd, J.J., Putnam, F.W., Lyon, T.D., Becker-Blease, K.A., Cheit, R.E., Siegel, N.B.,
Lyon p. 5 & Pezdek, K. (2005). The science of child sexual abuse. Science, 308, 501.
7. Kendall-Tackett, K., Lyon, T., Taliaferro, G., & Little, L. (2005). Why child maltreatment
researchers should include children’s disability status in their maltreatment studies. Child
Abuse & Neglect, 29, 147-151.
6. Lyon, T.D., Saywitz, K.J., Kaplan, D.L., & Dorado, J.S. (2001). Reducing maltreated
children’s reluctance to answer hypothetical oath-taking competency questions. Law &
Human Behavior, 25, 81-92.
5. Lyon, T.D., & Saywitz, K.J. (1999). Young maltreated children’s competence to take the
oath. Applied Developmental Science, 3, 16-27.
4. Kato, P.M., Lyon, T.D., & Rasco, C. (1998). Reasoning about moral aspects of illness and
treatment by preschoolers who are healthy or have a chronic illness. Journal of
Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 19, 68-76.
3. Lyon, T.D. (1995). False allegations and false denials in child sexual abuse. Psychology,
Public Policy, & Law, 1, 429-437.
2. Lyon, T.D., & Flavell, J.F. (1994). Young children's understanding of "remember" and
"forget." Child Development, 65, 1357-1371.
1. Lyon, T.D., & Flavell, J.F. (1993). Young children's understanding of forgetting over time.
Child Development, 64, 789-800.
Publications in Law Reviews
8. Lyon, T.D., & Dente, J. (2013). Child witnesses and the Confrontation Clause. Journal of
Criminal Law & Criminology, 102, 1181-1232.
7. Lyon, T.D., & LaMagna, R. (2007). The history of children’s hearsay: From Old Bailey to
post-Davis. Indiana Law Journal, 82, 1029-1058.
6. Lyon, T.D. (2002). Applying suggestibility research to the real world: The case of repeated
questions. Law & Contemporary Problems, 65, 97-126.
5. Lyon, T.D. (2000). Child witnesses and the oath: empirical evidence. University of Southern
California Law Review, 73,1017-1074.
4. Lyon, T.D. (1999). The new wave of suggestibility research: A critique. Cornell Law
Review, 84, 1004-1087.
3. Lyon, T.D., & Koehler, J.J. (1996). The relevance ratio: Evaluating the probative
value of expert testimony in child sexual abuse cases. Cornell Law Review, 82, 43-78.
2. Lyon, T.D., Gilles, E., & Cory, L. (1996). Medical evidence of physical Abuse in Infants and
Young Children, 28, 93-167.
1. Lyon, T.D. (1987). Sexual exploitation of divorce clients: The lawyer's prerogative? Harvard
Women's Law Journal, 10, 159-201.
Publications in Books
16. Lyon, T.D. (in press). Child witnesses and imagination: Lying, hypothetical reasoning, and
referential ambiguity. In M. Taylor (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Development of
Imagination. New York: Oxford.
15. Lyon, T.D. (2011). Assessing the competency of child witnesses: Best practice informed
by psychology and law. In M.E. Lamb, D. La Rooy, L.C. Malloy, & C. Katz (Eds.), Children’s
Testimony: A Handbook of Psychological Research and Forensic Practice (pp. 69-85).
Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.,
14. Lyon, Thomas D. (2010). Investigative interviewing of the child. In D.N. Duquette & A.M.
Haralambie (Eds.) Child Welfare Law and Practice (2d Ed.) (pp. 87-109). Denver, CO:
Bradford. (Reprinted in CAPSAC (California Professional Society on the Abuse of Children)
Consultant, Fall, 2011, 1-12.)
13. Saywitz, K.J., Lyon, T. D., & Goodman, G.S. (2011). Interviewing Children. In J.E.B.
Myers (Ed.), The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (3d ed.) (pp. 337-360). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
12. Lyon, T.D., & Ahern, E.C. (2011). Disclosure of child sexual abuse. In J.E.B. Myers (Ed.),
The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (3d. ed.) (pp. 233-252). Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
11. Lyon, T.D. (2009). Abuse disclosure: What adults can tell. In Bottoms, B. L., Goodman, G.
S., & Najdowski, C. J. (Eds.), Child victims, child offenders: Psychology and law (pp. 19-35).
New York: Guilford.
10. Lyon, T.D. (2007). False denials: Overcoming methodological biases in abuse disclosure
research. In M.E. Pipe, M. E. Lamb, Y. Orbach, and A.C. Cederborg (Eds.), Disclosing abuse:
Delays, denials, retractions and incomplete accounts (pp. 41-62). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
9. Lyon, T.D., & Mechanic, M.D. (2006). Domestic violence and child protection: Confronting
the dilemmas in moving from family court to dependency court. In N.E. Dowd, D.G. Singer, &
R.F. Wilson (Eds.), Handbook of children, culture, and violence (pp. 21-38). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
8. Lyon, T.D. (2005). Speaking with children: Advice from investigative interviewers
In P.F. Talley (Ed.), Handbook for the treatment of abused and neglected children (pp. 6582). Binghamton, NY: Haworth. (Reprinted in Lyon, T.D. (2005). Child development,
competence, and credibility: The latest research. In A.G. Donnelly (Ed.), State of the Art
Advocacy for Children, Youth, and Families (pp. 29-44). Denver, CO: National Association of
Counsel for Children.)
7. Lyon, T.D. (2002). Expert testimony on the suggestibility of children: Does it fit? In Bottoms,
B.L., Kovera, M.B., & McAuliff, B.D. (Eds.), Children, social science, and the law (pp. 378411). New York: Cambridge.
6. Lyon, T.D. (2002). Child witnesses and the oath. In Westcott, H.L., Davies, G.M., & Bull,
R.H.C. (Eds.), Children's testimony: A handbook of psychological research and forensic
practice (pp. 245-260). West Sussex, U.K.: Wiley.
5. Lyon, T.D. (2002). Scientific Support for Expert Testimony on Child Sexual Abuse
Accommodation In J.R. Conte (Ed.), Critical issues in child sexual abuse (pp. 107-138).
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
4. Saywitz, K.J., Goodman, G.S., & Lyon, T.D. (2002). Interviewing children in and out of
court: Current research and practice implications. In J. Myers, L. Berliner, J. Briere, C.T.
Hendrix, C. Jenny, & T. Reid (Eds.), The APSAC Handbook on Child Maltreatment (2d Ed.,
pp. 349-377). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
3. Saywitz, K.J., & Lyon, T.D. (2002). Coming to grips with children’s suggestibility. In M.
Eisen, G. Goodman, & J. Quas (Eds.), Memory and suggestibility in the forensic interview
(pp. 85-113). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
2. Lyon, T.D. (1999). Are battered women bad mothers? Rethinking the termination of abused
women’s parental rights for failure to protect. In H. Dubowitz (Ed.), Neglected children:
Research, practice, and policy (pp. 237-260). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
1. Lyon, T.D., & Koehler, J.J. (1998). Where researchers fear to tread: Interpretive differences
among testifying experts in child sexual abuse cases. In S.J. Ceci & H. Hembrooke (Eds.),
Expert witnesses in child abuse cases: What can and should be said in court (pp. 249-263).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Short Pieces
11. Lyon, T.D. (2012). Twenty-five years of interviewing research and practice: Dolls,
diagrams, and the dynamics of abuse disclosure. APSAC (American Professional Society on
the Abuse of Children) Advisor, 24(1-2), 14-19.
10. Lyon, T.D. (2009). Witnesses, Children as legal. In R.A. Shweder, T.R. Bidell, A.C.
Dailey, S.D. Dixon, P.J. Miller, & J. Modell (Eds.), The child: An encyclopedic companion (pp.
1036-1039). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
9. Lyon, T.D., Lamb, M.E., & Myers, J.E.B. (2009). [Legal and psychological support for the
NICHD interviewing protocol.] Author’s response to Vieth (2008). Child Abuse & Neglect, 33,
71-74.HH
8. Lyon, T.D. (2008, Fall). The Supreme Court, hearsay, and Crawford: Implications for child
interviewers. APSAC (American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children) Advisor,
20(3-4), 2-6.
7. Lyon, T.D. (2004, Spring). The Supreme Court and reluctant witnesses: Crawford v.
Washington. Section on Child Maltreatment Newsletter, Division 37, American Psychological
Association, 9(1), 1-2.
6. Lyon, T.D. (2004, Winter). Educating the public through the Michael Jackson case. Section
on Child Maltreatment Newsletter, Division 37, American Psychological Association, 8(3), 10.
5. Lyon, T.D. (2002, Winter). Support persons and the child witness. Section on Child
Maltreatment Newsletter, Division 37, American Psychological Association, 6(3), 5.
4. Lyon, T.D. (2001, Fall). Let’s not exaggerate the suggestibility of children. Court Review,
38, 12-14.
3. Lyon, T.D. (1996, Fall). The effect of threats on children’s disclosure of sexual abuse.
APSAC Advisor, 9, 9-15.
2. Lyon, T.D. (1996, Spring). Assessing children's competence to take the oath: Research
and recommendations. APSAC Advisor, 9, 1, 3-7.
1. Lyon, T.D. (1993). Children's decision-making competency: Misunderstanding Piaget.
Violence Update, 4, 6, 9.
Book Review
1. Lyon, T.D. (1996). The law and psychology of the child witness. (Book review of L.S.
McGough (1994). Child witnesses: Fragile voices in the American legal system).
Contemporary Psychology, 41, 701-702.
Practitioner Guides
5. Ahern, E.C., & Lyon, T.D. (2011). Supplemental investigative interview questions.
4. Lyon, T.D. (2007). Interviewing Children: Getting more with less (DVD).
3. Lyon, T.D., & Matthews, M. (2006). Model Brief: Questioning of Child Witnesses.
2. Lyon, T.D. (2005). Ten step investigative interview.
1. Lyon, T.D., & Saywitz, K.J. (2000). Qualifying Children to Take the Oath: Materials for
Interviewing Professionals.
Research presentations:
90. Evans, A.E., & Lyon, T.D. (November, 2012). Pragmatic failure and referential ambiguity
when attorneys ask child witnesses ‘Do you know/remember” questions. Paper presented at
the Conference on Empirical Legal Studies, Stanford, CA.
89. Lyon, T.D., Ahern, E.C., Evans, A.E., Quas, J.A., Wandrey, L., & Rush, E. (May, 2012).
Novel methods for eliciting disclosures from reluctant children. Paper presented at the 5th
Annual International Investigative Interviewing Research Group Conference, Toronto,
Ontario.
88. Quas, J.A., Lyon, T.D., & Wandrey, L. (May, 2012). Asking and answering temporal
questions in investigative interviews. Paper presented at the 5th Annual International
Investigative Interviewing Research Group Conference, Toronto, Ontario.
87. Lyon, T.D., & Evans, A.E. (May, 2012). Child witnesses’ truth-lie performance: 1678-2008.
Paper presented at the 5th Annual International Investigative Interviewing Research Group
Conference, Toronto, Ontario.
86. Lyon, T.D., Scurich, N., Choi, K., Handmaker, S. & Blank, R. (November, 2011). “How did
you feel?” Increasing child sexual abuse witnesses’ production of evaluative information. Talk
at the Sixth Annual Conference on Empirical Legal Studies, Northwestern Law School,
November 5, 2011.
85. Lyon, T.D. (September, 2011). Forfeiture by exploitation: Child witnesses and the
confrontation clause. USC Gould School of Law, Los Angeles, CA.
84. Lyon, T.D., Ahern, E., Wandrey, L.E., & Quas, J.A. (April, 2011). The effects of a putative
confession on young maltreated and non-maltreated children's true and false reports. Paper
presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development,
Montreal, Quebec.
83. Wandrey, L., Quas, J.A., & Lyon. T.D. (March, 2011) Wrongdoing and Children's
Lyon p. 10 Emergent Understanding of Truth and Lies. Poster presented at the biennial
conference
of the Society for Research in Child Development, Montreal, Quebec.
82. Lyon, T.D. (February, 2011). Anti-narratives: How questioning of children suppresses
credible reports. Invited talk at the Law & Memory: Tenth anniversary conference of the USC
Center for Law, History, and Culture, Los Angeles, CA.
81. Lyon, T.D. (February, 2011). Child witnesses and testimonial competency. Invited talk,
Southwestern Law School, Los Angeles, CA.
80. Lyon, T.D. (October, 2010). Encouraging children’s disclosures: Implications for
interviewing children about abuse. Invited Paper at the Stauffer Colloquium, Claremont
Graduate School, Claremont, CA.
79. Lyon, T.D. (March, 2010). Discussant: Children’s performance in investigative interviews.
Paper presented at the American Psychology and Law Society conference, Vancouver,
British Columbia.
78. Cooper, A., Quas, J., & Lyon, T.D. (March, 2010). Out-of-Home placement: Maltreated
children's perceptions of their placement. Paper presented at the American Psychology and
Law Society conference, Vancouver, British Columbia
77. Wandrey, L.E., Licht, R., Ahern, E. Cooper, A., Quas, J.A., & Lyon, T.D. (March, 2010).
Rapport building and putative confession: Enhancing children's disclosures. Paper presented
at the American Psychology and Law Society conference, Vancouver, British Columbia
76. Ahern, E., Lyon, T.D., & Quas, J.A. Nonverbal indicia of young children’s false
statements. Paper presented at the American Psychology and Law Society conference,
Vancouver, British Columbia
75. Scurich, N., Handmaker, S., Blank, R., & Lyon, T.D. (March, 2010). Eliciting evaluative
information from child witness in sexual abuse prosecutions: The effects of question-type.
Paper presented at the American Psychology and Law Society conference, Vancouver,
British Columbia
74. Wandrey, L.E., Quas, J.A., Lyon, T.D., & Friedman, W. (March, 2010). Maltreated
children's temporal knowledge for significant events. Paper presented at the American
Psychology and Law Society conference, Vancouver, British Columbia.
73. Licht, R.C., Wandrey, L.E., Ahern, E.C., Cooper, A., Sim, M. Quas, J. & Lyon, T.D. (2009,
November). The effect of rapport building and putative confessions upon maltreated and
nonmaltreated children’s disclosure of a minor transgression. Paper presented at the Fourth
Annual Conference on Empirical Legal Studies, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, CA.
72. Wandrey, L.E., Lyon, T.D., Quas, J.A., & Friedman, W.J. (2009, April). Maltreated
children’s temporal memory for court visits and foster placements.
Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development,
Denver, CO.
71. Orbach, Y. Lyon, T.D., Friedman, W.J., & Abbott, C. (2009, April). Children and
Adolescents' References to Temporal Attributes of Allegedly Experienced Events in the
Course of Trial Testimony. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for
Research in Child Development, Denver, CO.
70. Ahern, E.C., Lyon, T.D., Wandrey, L.E., & Quas, J.A. (2009, April). Young children’s
emergent ability to make false statements. Poster presented at the Biennial Meeting of the
Society for Research in Child Development, Denver, CO.
69. Licht, R., Wandrey, L.E., Ahern, E.C., Quas, J.A., & Lyon, T.D. (2009, April). Rapport
Building and Transgression Disclosure among Maltreated Children. Paper presented at the
Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Denver, CO.
68. Lyon, T.D. (October, 2008). Understanding children’s disclosure. Invited presentation at
the So-Cal Psychology and Law Conference, University of California, Irvine.
67. Ahern, E.C., Lyon, T.D., Quas, L, & Malloy, L. (September, 2008). Non-maltreated and
maltreated children’s attitudes about transgression secrecy: Parents vs. strangers. Paper
presented at the 3rd Annual Conference on Empirical Legal Studies. Cornell Law School,
Ithaca, NY.
66. Ahern, E.C., Lyon, T.D., Quas, J.A., & Malloy, L. (March, 2008). Non-maltreated and
maltreated children’s attitudes about transgression secrecy: Parents vs. strangers. Paper
presented at the American Psychology and Law Society Conference, Jacksonville, FL. Ahern
received an APLS student travel award ($250).
65. Malloy, L., Quas, J.A., Lyon, T.D., & Ahern, E. (March, 2008). Anticipatory
supportiveness: Maltreated and non-maltreated children's predictions of caregiver belief.
Paper presented at the American Psychology and Law Society Conference, Jacksonville, FL.
64. Cooper, A., Quas, J.A., Wallin, A.R., & Lyon, T.D. (March, 2008). Maltreated and
nonmaltreated children's legal knowledge. Paper presented at the American Psychology and
Law Society Conference, Jacksonville, FL.
Lyon p. 11
Code, Los Angeles, CA.
53. Lyon, T.D., & Lamagna, R. (January, 2007). Incompetent children and hearsay: from Old
Bailey to Post-Davis. Paper presented at the Association of American Law Schools Annual
Meeting, Washington, D.C.
52. Malloy, L., Lyon, T.D., & Quas, J. (March, 2006). Recantation reversals in substantiated
child sexual abuse. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychology and
Law Society, St. Petersburg, Florida.
51. Malloy, L.C., Lyon, T.D., Forman, J., & Quas., J.A. (June, 2005) Factors affecting
children’s Sexual Abuse Disclosure Patterns in a Social Services Sample. Paper presented at
the 17th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Society, Los Angeles, CA.
50. Lyon, T.D., Malloy, L., Talwar, V. & Quas, J.A. (June, 2005). Truth induction: Reducing
maltreated children’s lies. Paper presented at the 17th Annual Convention of the American
Psychological Society, Los Angeles, CA.
49. Carrick, N., Quas, J.A., & Lyon, T. (April, 2005). Maltreated and non-maltreated children's
understanding of fantasy. Poster presented at the Biennial Conference of the Society for
Research in Child Development, Atlanta, Georgia.
48. Davis, E., Wallin, A., Lyon, T.D., Horwitz, B., & Quas, J.A. (April, 2005). Maltreated and
nonmaltreated children’s knowledge of the legal system. Poster presented at the Biennial
Conference of the Society for Research in Child Development, Atlanta, Georgia.
47. Friedman, W.J., & Lyon, T.D. (April, 2005). Children's Memory for Time: New Findings
and Forensic Implications. Poster presented at the Biennial Conference of the Society for
Research in Child Development, Atlanta, Georgia.
46. Malloy, L.C., Lyon, T.D., Quas, J.A., & Forman, J. (March, 2005). Denial and recantation
of sexual abuse in a social services sample. Paper presented at the American Psychology
and Law Society conference, La Jolla, CA.
45. Lyon, T.D. (March, 2005). Disclosing child abuse: Insight from forensic and courtroom
settings. Discussant at the American Psychology and Law Society conference, La Jolla, CA.
44. Davis., E., Quas, J.A., Horwitz, B., Wallin, A., & Lyon, T.D. (March, 2005). Maltreated and
nonmaltreated children’s knowledge of the legal system. Paper presented at the American
Psychology and Law Society conference, La Jolla, CA.
44. Lyon, T.D., Malloy, L.C., Talwar, V., & Quas, J.A. (March, 2005). Detecting
maltreated children’s false reports with truth induction. Paper presented at the American
Psychology and Law Society conference, La Jolla, CA.
43. Lyon, T.D. (October, 2004). Maltreated children’s reluctance to disclose: Laboratory and
observational research. Invited talk presented at the Grand Rounds, Department of
Psychiatry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH.
42. Lyon, T.D. (July, 2004). Controversies in interviewing children about violence and abuse.
Section on Child Maltreatment Presidential Address at the Annual Meeting of the American
Psychological Association, Honolulu, HI.
41. Lyon, T.D., Koverola, C., Morahan, M., & Heger, A. (March, 2004). Understanding nondisclosure of child sexual abuse. Talk presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Psychology/Law Society, Scottsdale, AZ.
40. Lyon, T.D., Malloy, L.C., Talwar, V., & Quas, J.A. (March, 2004) Truth induction:
Reducing maltreated children’s lies and secrets. Talk presented at the Annual Meeting of the
American Psychology/Law Society, Scottsdale, AZ.
39. Lyon, T.D. (February, 2004). Stranger danger and the false denial of acquaintance abuse.
Talk presented at the Annual Meeting of the Amercian Academy for the Advancement of
Science, Seattle, WA.
38. Lyon, T.D. (December, 2003). Interdisciplinary interviewing of young children about family
violence. Meeting of the USC fellows of the Center for Interdisciplinary Research, Los
Angeles, CA.
37. Lyon, T.D. (November, 2003). Are sexually abused children reluctant to disclose abuse?
Invited Talk at Loyola Law School, Los Angeles, CA.
36. Lyon, T.D. (August, 2003). Interpreting the research on disclosure and recantation of
sexual abuse. Invited talk at the NICHD conference on delayed and non- disclosure of child
sexual abuse, Satra Bruk, Sweden.
35. Lyon, T.D., Koverola, C., Morahan, M., & Heger, A. (August, 2003). Reluctance and
recantation in sexually abused children. Talk at the annual conference of the American
Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.
34. Lyon, T.D., Quas, J., & Malloy, L.C. (August, 2003). The effects of truth induction on
maltreated children’s coached reports. Talk at the annual conference of the American
Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.
33. Lyon, T.D. (June, 2003) False negatives in child sexual abuse: How we suppress
children's stories. Talk at the Annual Meeting of the Law & Society Association,
Pittsburg, PA.
32. Lyon, T.D., (April, 2003). Who are you calling a liar? Enhancing Young Spanish-Speaking
Children’s Ability to Demonstrate Their Oath-Taking Competence. Talk at the Biennial
Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Tampa, FL.
31. Lyon, T.D. (August, 2002). Child maltreatment and the law: Avila's acquittal. Invited paper
presented at the annual conference of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, Il.
30. Lyon, T.D., Koverola, C., Morahan, M., & Heger, A. (March, 2002). Disclosure patterns
with a structured sexual abuse interview. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the
American Psychology and Law Society conference, Austin, TX.
29. Lyon, T.D. (January, 2002). False allegations and false denials of child sexual abuse.
Invited talk at Whittier Law School, Costa Mesa, CA.
28. Lyon, T.D. (August, 2001). How jurors should assess children’s reluctance to disclose
sexual abuse. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological
Association, San Francisco, CA.
27. Lyon, T.D. (April, 2001). The effects of reassurance and promising to tell the truth on
young maltreated children’s false reports of a minor transgression. In L. Baker-Ward & T.D.
Lyon (Chairs), Effectively interviewing young children: Scaffolding individual differences and
developmental limitations. Symposium conducted at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for
Research in Child Development, Minneapolis, MN.
26. Lyon, T.D. (April, 2001). Commentary. In D. Kaplan (Chair), Understanding maltreated
children’s experiences with foster care. Symposium conducted at the Biennial Meeting of the
Society for Research in Child Development, Minneapolis, MN
25. Lyon, T.D. (March, 2001). Children and the truth. Invited talk presented at the 1
Annual
Phoebe C. Ellsworth Psychology and Justice Symposium, St. Mary’s College, Brentwood,
CA.
24. Lyon, T.D. (March, 2001). The effects of reassurance or the oath on children’s honesty:
Research with maltreated children. Invited talk presented to the Department of Psychology,
University of California-Riverside.
23. Lyon, T.D. (January, 2001). How we agree in the debate over children’s suggestibility.
Invited talk presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association of Law Schools,
San Francisco, CA.
22. Lyon, T.D. (August, 2000). Does the Oath or Reassurance Lead Young Maltreated
Children to Make False Reports? Poster presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
21. Lyon, T.D., & Dorado, J.S. (June, 1999). Does the oath matter? Motivating maltreated
children to tell the truth. Presentation at the meeting of the American Psychological Society,
Denver, CO.
20. Lyon, T.D. (April, 1999). Maltreated Children and the Oath. Invited presentation at the
School of Social Ecology, University of California at Irvine.
19. Lyon, T.D. (February, 1999). Young children’s competence to take the oath. U.C.L.A. Law
School Faculty Workshop.
18. Lyon, T.D., & Saywitz, K.J. (August, 1998). Maltreated children and the oath. Invited
presentation presented at the 27
International Conference on Applied Psychology, San
Francisco, CA.
17. Lyon, T.D. (July, 1998). What emerging research tells us about children’s suggestibility
and false memories: Legal, psychological and research issues. Comments on symposium
presented at the Fifth National Colloquium of the American Professional Society on the Abuse
of Children, Miami Beach, FL.
16. Lyon, T.D., & Saywitz, K.J. (June, 1998). Why do competent children fail to qualify to
testify? Paper presented at the Law & Society Conference, Aspen, CO.
15. Lyon, T.D. (March, 1998). Situational and individual differences in children’s suggestibility.
Comments on symposium presented at the American Psychology and Law Society Biennial
Meeting, Redondo Beach, CA.
14. Lyon, T.D., & Saywitz, K.J. (March, 1998). Maltreated children’s competence to take the
oath. Paper presented at the American Psychology and Law Society Biennial Meeting,
Redondo Beach, CA.
13. Lyon, T.D., Saywitz, K.J., Dorado, J., & Kaplan, D. (April, 1997). Increasing young
maltreated children’s willingness to discuss the negative consequences of lying. Poster
presented at the Biennial Conference of the Society for Research in Child Development.
Washington, DC.
12. Lyon, T.D. (March, 1997). Young Maltreated Children’s Testimonial Competence. Invited
Presentation to the Developmental Psychology Forum, University of California at Los
Angeles.
11. Lyon, T.D. (December, 1996). Young maltreated children’s capacity to take the
oath. Invited presentation to the Interdisciplinary Family Violence Program, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
10. Lyon, T.D. (September, 1995). Young maltreated children's capacity to take the oath.
Invited presentation at the Claremont Graduate School of Psychology, Pomona, CA.
9. Lyon, T.D., Kato, P.M., & Stote, R. (March, 1995). Sick vs. bad: Healthy and ill
preschooler's ability to distinguish between illness and immorality. Paper presented at the
Society for Research in Child Development, Biennial Meeting, Indianapolis.
8. Lyon, T.D. (February, 1995). Young children's understanding of knowledge acquisition:
Prior perception versus knowledge. Poster presented at the University of Oregon Institute of
Cognitive and Social Sciences Conference on Theories of Mind, Eugene, OR.
7. Lyon, T.D. (June, 1994). Young children's understanding of desire and knowledge. Paper
presented at the American Psychology Society, Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C.
6. Lyon, T.D., & Koehler, J.J. (March, 1994). When is expert testimony relevant. Paper
presented at the American Psychology-Law Society, Biennial Meeting, Santa Fe.
5. Lyon, T.D. (March, 1993). Young children's understanding of forgetting over time. Poster
presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Biennial Meeting, New Orleans.
4. Lyon, T.D. (March, 1993). Young children's understanding of memory verbs. Poster
presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Biennial Meeting, New Orleans.
3. Robinson, K., & Lyon, T.D. (March, 1993). Do young children understand that questions
imply ignorance? Poster presented at the Society for Research in Child Development,
Biennial Meeting, New Orleans.
2. Lyon, T.D. (April, 1991). Young children's understanding of "remember" and "forget."
Poster presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Biennial Meeting,
Seattle.
1. Lyon, T.D. (April, 1991). Young children's understanding of remembering and forgetting.
Poster presented at the Western Psychological Association, Annual Convention, San
Francisco.