NILISAH AKRAY
07285021
CONTENT
CONTEXT AND GRAMMAR .................................................................................................... 2
PARAMETER ............................................................................................................................... 3
SEMANTIC COMPOUNENT ................................................................................................................. 4
THE VERB AND TENSE ............................................................................................................ 5
HW: BREAK ........................................................................................................................................... 5
CLASS WORK: SIT ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Thematic Roles .............................................................................................................................. 7
VOICE ........................................................................................................................................... 8
VOICE FORMS ........................................................................................................................................ 8
CAUSATIVE INCHOATIVE .................................................................................................... 10
THE INTERACTION BETWEEN VOICE FORMS AND THEMATIC ROLES ................................ 10
PASSIVE...................................................................................................................................... 11
Passive or Active..................................................................................................................................... 13
Passive with “have/have been” ............................................................................................................... 13
MODALS ..................................................................................................................................... 14
~1~
CONTEXTUAL GRAMMAR
Context (of situation) takes place in place.
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Place => present situation X
Time => no need when it is clear.
No need in present time again because it is clear.
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Time => present, past, future
Tense => so many
Tense and time are different than each other.
1. Speaker – hearer
2. Manner => how speaker speaks
3. Intention
CONTEXT AND GRAMMAR
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Tenses
Modals
Passives
Conditionals
If clauses
Noun clauses
Adj- Adv
Time Clauses
Relative Clauses
 Place ( adv + noun clauses )
~2~
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Time ( tenses, adverbial clauses of time )
Speaker – Hearer (passives, reported speech, modals )
Manner ( adverbs, modals, adverbial clauses, noun clauses )
Intention ( gerund – infinitive, passive – active, modals )
PARAMETER
Parameter: difference of two grammars
 Tense
 Time => gets shape according to speaker’ s point of view
Tense shapes tenses.
 State – no time, intention, effect, activity.
 Activity- time, intention, effect, activity are on.
 Achievement – (istemsiz) no intention and effect.
Activity and time are on.
 Accomplishment – (istemli) time, intention, activity, effect are on.
HW:
I walk to home from school every day. (Walk is active verb )
I smell the blue flower. ( smell is active verb )
The flower smells beautiful. ( smell is state verb )
She has loved dancing since she was a child.( love is state verb )
The world is becoming more crowded. (Becoming is achievement verb )
I will take my umbrella with me. (Accomplishment)
We heard his closing door. (Achievement)
She was writing to one of her friends. ( active )
The nurse had been feeling bad. ( active )
I feel well today. ( state )
~3~
PAST
PRESENT
FUTURE
SIMPLE PAST
SIMPLE PRESENT
SIMPLE FUTURE
PAST PROGRESSIVE
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
PAST PERFECT
PRESENT PERFECT
FUTURE PERFECT
PAST PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
PAST PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
FUTURE PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
If something is finished itself it is accomplishment.
 Walk => activity ( may not have end )
 Climb => accomplishment ( because it has an end )
SEMANTIC COMPOUNENT
Motion
Direction
Intention
Period
End point
Semantics: deals with meaning of words, sentences
Semantics components: anlam bilisim
Morphology: small units
Syntax: structure of sentence
Active= accomplishment
State= achievement
! Difference of them is accomplishment and achievement finish itself.
Not every word has one use.
If something finishs itself, it is accomplishment.
Exp:
I am considering moving to Istanbul. (Active)
Because there is an activity here.
I consider x as a best boyfriend. (State)
~4~
THE VERB AND TENSE
Jamie has been waiting for an hour, but none of her friends has shown up yet.
(Activity)
(Accomplishment)
Janet waited for an hour, but nobody showed up.
(Accomplishment) it is finished.
I have smashed the car.
(Achievement) (There is no intention and it is finished)
I am smashing the car. (That cannot be said because there is no intention)
 The verb controls the usage of the tense.
Exp: The statue stands in the garden. (State)
The statue is standing in the garden. ( the statue is not an agent so that
this sentence cannot be used like this)
HW:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
BREAK
I break the vase. ( activity)
I am breaking the vase. ( in break there is no intention= wrong usage)
I have broken the vase. ( achievement)
I broke the vase. (achievement)
I was breaking the vase. (no intention= wrong usage)
I had broken the vase before I left home. (achievement)
CLASS WORK: SIT
1) Melissa sits on chair every morning. (activity)
2) Melissa is sitting on her chair now. (activity)
3) Mellissa sat on her chair two hours ago. (accomplishment)
WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ASPECT AND TENSE?
T
A
M
PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
SIMPLE ASPECT
PERFECTIVE ASPECT
SIMPLE TENSE
PERFECT TENSE
PROGRESSIVE TENSE
NOTE: All perfect and past tenses have end points.
~5~
I have finished the work. (Perfect aspect)
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE: Bulundugumuz zaman icinde bitirilmis eylemler
icin kullanilir.
PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE: Gecmiste konusma aninda yaptigimiz
eylemlerde kullanilir.
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE: Gelecekte konusma aninda yapacagimiz
eylemler icin kullanilir.
Search: Verb semantics
Tenses
Aspect of these tenses
Limitation
Search => activity verb
I search for my books in the classroom. ( nesne limitation yaratiyor)
I searched…
I will search for my books in the classroom.
I am searching for my…
I have been searching…
I was searching for my books in the classroom.
I had searched…
I will be searching…
I have searched for my books in the classroom.
I had searched…
I will be searching…
NOTE: Aspect eylemin aldigi eklerle gorunusunu belirtiyor.
TELL THE DIFFERENCE:
 The class had been waiting for 20 minutes when the teacher came.
 The class had waited for 20 minutes and then teacher came. ( waiting was in
progress)
~6~
 The class got up when the teacher came. ( the teacher came and at the same time
the class got up)
 The class had left when the teacher came. ( the class left and then the teacher
came)
 The class had left before the teacher came. ( the teacher came but to her surprise
there was no body in the class)
 Mary lived with her aunt when her uncle died. (Mary’s uncle died and then she
started to live with her aunt.)
 I will have been living in Istanbul for 5 years by the time 2005. ( I will start
living in Istanbul in two years. I will live there 5 years)
 By the time 2015, I will be still living there.
Thematic Roles
Agent: doer of an action (animals or humans, mostly living things)
Animals are separated from plants in terms of moment and instinct. (Instinct sometimes happen
with animals)
If agent is not living thing, it is a causer. If causer is living thing, it is an agent. If
causer is not living thing, it is a theme.
Instrument: used by using preposition “with”
Exp: The hammer broke the glass. (Hammer is also instrument here)
Experiencer: somebody who is affected physiologically by someone or something.
Theme: Can be animate or inanimate. Sometimes people do not know we love them, even
though we love them so much!!!
Exp: The wind is blowing. (Wind is not a causer because it doesn’t have harm or
benefit.)
The wind is damaging. (Wind is causer)
Recipient (Beneficiary): I made a cake for you. (You is recipient)
Location: The children are in the classroom.
Source: I am living Adana to go to Istanbul. (Adana is source, Istanbul is goal)
Source is always theme but theme is not source always. Goal should be direction.
Patient: Somebody who is affected physical by someone or something.
Examples:
I love you. (“I” is experiencer and “you” is theme. Because theme is not affected by
anything and maybe person does not know that s/he is loved)
~7~
I am melting the butter. (I is agent, the butter is patient)
He smashed the radio in to pieces thanks to stone. (He is agent, the radio is patient, and
stone is instrument)
She keeps sneezing and cleaning her nose. (She is patient, nose is theme)
A friend lent her a napkin. (A friend is agent, “her” is R, and napkin is theme)
He fell off the window. ( the window is source)
I borrow the book from my friend. (My friend is source)
Source bir preposition ile isaretlenmek zorunda degildir. “off, from” genelde
“source” temsil eder.
I am reading the book in the light. (Light is source)
The ball broke the window. (The ball is causer)
I had hair dresser cut my hair. (I is agent, hair dresser is agent)
VOICE
How is voice formed?
1. Syntactically (yapi)
2. Morphologically (turcede genellikle)
3. Semantically (lexically) (anlamca)
1. The child was kidnapped. (Was)
They greeted each other. (Each other)
He cut himself. (Himself)
He made his daughter clean the car. (Made)
2. “boyatmak” in Turkish morphological, in English syntactical.
3. Break (intention, cause, and activity) (semantically causative)
Send (intention, cause, activity) (semantically causative)
Shave (semantically reflexive) (intention, self)
VOICE FORMS
Active (duz)
~8~
Passive (edilgen)
Causative (ettirgen)
Reflexive (donuslu)
Reciprocal (istes) (one another, each other)
The class is listening to the teacher. (Listening burda istes degildir cunku topluluk ismi
kullanilmistir)
The class is listening to the teacher altogerher. (Altogether and listening birlikte istes
olmustur)
NOTE: Eylemin istes olup olmadigini anlamak icin ozneyi teke indirmek gerekir. Eger cumle
tekil ozne ile uyum sagliyor ise cumle istes degildir. Eger cumle tekil ozne ile uyum
saglamiyorsa cumle istestir.)
The class is listening to the teacher.
I am listening to the teacher. (Goruldugu gibi cumle istes degildir)
The class is listening to the teacher altogether.
I am listening to the teacher altogether. ( goruldugu gibi cumle istestir)
Examples:
I was moved by the picture of the requested child. ( S. passive)
We agreed on the plan. ( L. ReC)
He quickened the process by talking autoerotic. ( L. causative)
We got beaten in the race. ( L. passive)
The door opened and the soft breeze came in. (L. passive and L .passive)
The book earned him a fortune. (L. C)
They demolished the old building. (L.C)
The birds blew together in the same direction. (S. REC)
The storm wiped away all the sand off the coast. (L.C)
Pull yourself together. (S. res)
Why don’t you join us? (L. REC)
I disagree with you. (L>REC)
The two friends kissed each other and left. (S. REC)
~9~
The boy hid in the wardrobe. (L.REF)
He got the manager to punish his friend. (S. C)
CAUSATIVE INCHOATIVE
 Eylem bir “cause” a bagli gelismeli.
 “by” phrase almamali
 Passive hale donusturulebilir ama “by” agent almamali.
a. Boil
b. Melt
c. Fry
d. Thicken
a) The water boild at 100C
b) My ice-cream melts quickly because of the sun.
c) Potatoes are fried for every meal at my home.
d) The line was thickened by architect to be seen well.
Right sentences:
a. The ice on the river was thickened. (was is not necessary)
The ice on the river thickened.
b. Potatoes are fried for every meal at my home. (are is not necessary)
We fry potatoes for every meal at my home. (is better)
c. Water will be boiled in a minute. ( be is not necessary)
Water will boil in a minute.
d. Glaciers have melted by global warming.
e. Her voice records well in the studio. (L.P)
f. Silk creases easily. ( C.I)
g. The polite landed the plane. (L.C)
h. The car reversed and the put it in to the garage. (L.P and L.C)
i. She photographs well. (L.P)
j. She is photographed by the photographer. (S.P)
THE INTERACTION BETWEEN VOICE FORMS AND THEMATIC
ROLES
The snow on the mountain melted and the water filled.
The snow is patient.
Melted is active, later lexically causative inchoative
The water is theme and causer
Filled is active, later lexically causative
Causative Inchoative mostly patient in thematic roles
~ 10 ~
Causative Inchoative differs from L.C because in L.C, there is a doer.
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Melt
My mother melts the butter to use in the meal.
Subject (agent, causer)
Object (patient)
The heat from the fire caused the building to brown.
NP is the causer, theme
Cause is LC
Object and the subject (The water) is patient.
Brown is causative inchoative.
PASSIVE
Active
be
Passive
V1
am, is , are
V2
was, were
V3
been
Ving
being
To-V1
to be
Will-V1
_V3
will be
Passive Infinitive
People think that Mary has committed the crime.
Mary is thought to have committed to the crime.
Passive of Gerund
I hate people calling me “madam”
I hate being called “madam”
Passive of Infinitive
I would like people to call me “madam”.
I would like to be called “madam”.
~ 11 ~
Exercises:
The bread is baked here.
The bread is being baked here.
The bread was baked here. (simple past)
The bread was being baked here. (past continuous)
The bread has been taken here. (Present perfect)
The bread had been taken here. (past perfect)
The gate will be dosed this evening. (future tense
The bread is going to be baked. (going to future)
.
The bread should be baked soon.( modals)
The bread ought to be baked. (modals)
Lots of postmen get bitten by dogs. (passives with get)
Special passive structures:
İ was given:
Clair was given some flowers.
İt is said that:
Some people say that Henry is in love with Clair.
İt is said that Henry is in love with Clair.
He is said to:
People expected that they would win.
United is expected to win.
1. Passive kisiyi gizlemek icin kullanilir.
The glass is broken => I broke the glass
2. Yapan kisi ve olay arasinda mesafe koymak icin kullanilir.
~ 12 ~
I bear him no ill will. (ona karsi kotu birsey tasimiyorum)
Bear is state verb
“No ill will and him” are object
Passive or Active
I wish you luck. (Wish is a state verb, for this reason it cannot be passive)
They declare him President. (Whom did they declare president? Him)
Note: whom did they declare him? (President is not an object)
He lay still on the bed. (Still adverbial phrase, on the bed prepositional phrase)
They made him promise. (He was made to promise)
Note: what? Who (m)? If a verb has an object it is transitive…
The book earned him a fortune. (Causatives are always passive so that they do not need to be
done passive one more time.
Lexically causatives are most likely passive.
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The sun dried their clothes. (can be passive because sentence have obvious object)
This stain will wash out with KOSLA. (L.P)
KOSLA will wash out the stain.
Note: N.P whom yada what sorularina cevap veriyor ise passive olabilir. Nesne belirgin
degilse ve L.C ise passive olmaz.
Passive with “have/have been”
 People think that Tom was dishonest.
Tom is thought to have been dishonest.
 People think that Tom was stealing from his friends.
Tom is thought to have been stealing from his friends.
 People think that Tom has come.
Tom is thought to have come. (The first sentence is perfect so that “have” should be
used)
 I hate people asking me personal questions. (extra information)
I hate being asked personal questions.
~ 13 ~
MODALS
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Mood is related to modality.
Fact cannot bear a marker
For possibility in future, we use “could” instead “can”
Modals reflex people moods.
1. I must do my home work. (Bu odevi yapmak benim gorevim yapmaliyim.)
2. I have to do my homework. (Allah kahretsin nerden cikti bu odev)
Modality (Kiplik)
a.
b.
c.
d.
Mood
Passives
Invasions
Adverbials
Note: Similarity between Modals and Auxiliary verb is both can be used to ask question
and make questions negative.
Note: “have to” is not a modal, it is a modal verb. Modal auxiliary verbs are verbs that
can make questions or negative sentences itself.
Note: modal verbs are modals that act as if it is verb.
Modal Auxiliary Verb
Can
Should
Must
Could
Could Have
May
Shall
Will
Ought to
Had Better
Modal Like Expression
To be suppose to
To be to
To be expected to
Could \ was able to
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I could run fast when I was young.
I was able to run fast when somebody chased me.
Must: olmali
Have to: zorunda kalmak
Needn’t: gerek yok
~ 14 ~
Modal Verb
Have to
Need
Dare to
Be able to
Needn’t have to: gerek yoktu ama yaptli
Didin’t need to: gerek yoktu yapmadi.
~ 15 ~
~ 16 ~